40 Questions
What is the primary use of benzodiazepines in pain management?
Sedating and reducing anxiety and muscle relaxation
What is the main cause of hemorrhagic stroke?
Ruptured vessel
What is the function of TENS in pain management?
Stimulating nerves to reduce pain
What is the main risk factor for stroke?
Age
What is the result of untreated hypertension in relation to stroke?
Hemorrhagic stroke
What is the primary use of corticosteroids in pain management?
Reducing inflammation and swelling
What is the primary cause of ischaemic stroke?
Blood clot blocking an artery to the brain
What is the acronym that represents the signs of stroke?
FACE Arms Speech Time
What is the primary function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Protein synthesis
During which phase of the cell cycle do extra organelles and DNA undergo replication?
Interphase
What is the result of the combination of DNA from both parents during reproduction?
A zygote with the correct number of chromosomes
What is the main function of lysosomes?
Breakdown of old organelles and digestion of foreign substances
What is the difference between free ribosomes and attached ribosomes?
Free ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, while attached ribosomes are found in the endoplasmic reticulum
What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?
Packaging and transport of proteins
How many stages does meiosis have?
8 stages
What is the role of peroxisomes in the cell?
Detoxification of harmful substances and neutralization of dangerous free radicals
What is the location of TSH receptors that causes exophthalmos and other ocular changes?
On tissue within the orbit
What is the effect of primary hyperthyroidism on TSH levels?
TSH levels decrease
What is the first-line therapy to reduce thyroid hormone levels?
Antithyroid medication
What is a rare but dangerous worsening of the thyrotoxic state?
Thyrotoxic crisis
What is the risk of permanent hypoparathyroidism after thyroidectomy?
Less than 2%
What is the risk of recurrent laryngeal nerve damage after thyroidectomy?
Less than 1%
What is the treatment for severe cases of Graves' disease?
Corticosteroids and surgical intervention
What is the timeframe for mortality in untreated thyrotoxic crisis?
Within 48 hours
What is the primary mechanism by which a pulse oximeter measures oxygen saturation?
By measuring the amount of haemoglobin carrying oxygen
What is the main difference between Type 1 and Type 2 respiratory failure?
Type 1 has low pO2 and low pCO2, while Type 2 has low pO2 and high pCO2
What is the primary characteristic of obstructive airway diseases?
Narrowing of the airways and increased airflow resistance
What is the purpose of spirometry in diagnosing respiratory diseases?
To measure the force and volume of a maximum expiration after a full inspiration
What is the primary cause of the wheeze sound in patients with obstructive airway diseases?
Increased airflow resistance
What is the primary difference between acute and chronic respiratory failure?
Acute is life-threatening and chronic is not readily apparent
What is the primary characteristic of restrictive airway diseases?
Scarring of the lung tissue
What is the primary mechanism by which renal compensation occurs in respiratory failure?
The kidneys increase the production of bicarbonate
What is the duration of CT scan in high-risk stroke patients?
Within 24 hours
What is the purpose of frequent monitoring of vital signs using ADDS score?
To monitor the patient's vital signs
What is the pharmacological management for ischaemic stroke?
Thrombolysis and aspirin
What is the purpose of maintaining BP and BGL?
To maintain cerebral perfusion
What is the non-pharmacological management for stroke?
Carotid endarterectomy and thrombectomy
Why is it important to keep the patient nil by mouth?
To assess the swallowing reflex
What is the purpose of undertaking a nutritional status assessment?
To assess the patient's risk of malnutrition
What is the purpose of protecting the patient from injury?
To prevent seizures and motor deficits
Study Notes
Cell Division
- Mitosis: a process that lasts for approximately 1 hour in a 24-hour cycle, consisting of 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
- Interphase: a stage that occurs before and after cell division, where the cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division.
Meiosis
- A process of cell division that involves 2 cycles of cell division, resulting in 4 daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
- In human cells, meiosis results in 23 chromosomes in each gamete.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
- A membranous network attached to the nuclear membrane, involved in protein synthesis and transport.
- Consists of two types: rough endoplasmic reticulum (with ribosomes) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (without ribosomes).
Ribosome
- The site of protein synthesis, composed of RNA and protein.
- Types of ribosomes: free ribosomes (floating in the cytoplasm) and attached ribosomes (bound to the endoplasmic reticulum).
Golgi Apparatus
- A network of flattened, smooth membranes involved in protein transport and modification.
- Receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum, modifies them, and packages them into vesicles for transport to other organelles or for secretion outside the cell.
Lysosomes
- Membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes, responsible for breaking down and recycling cellular waste and foreign substances.
- Involved in apoptosis (programmed cell death).
Peroxisomes
- Small organelles similar to lysosomes, involved in detoxification and neutralizing free radicals.
Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident)
- A medical condition caused by impaired blood flow to the brain, resulting in brain cell death.
- Types: Ischaemic stroke (blockage of a blood vessel) and hemorrhagic stroke (rupture of a blood vessel).
- Risk factors: age, gender, family history, hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol, smoking, obesity, poor diet, lack of exercise, and atrial fibrillation.
Pathophysiology of Stroke
- Ischaemic stroke: blood clot blocks an artery, causing interruption of blood flow to the brain.
- Hemorrhagic stroke: rupture of a blood vessel, causing bleeding and increased pressure in the skull.
Signs of Stroke
- Face: drooping, numbness, or weakness on one side of the face.
- Arms: weakness or numbness in one arm.
- Speech: difficulty speaking or understanding speech.
- Time: act F-A-S-T and call for medical help immediately.
Management of Stroke
- Frequent monitoring of vital signs and neurological function.
- Maintaining blood pressure and blood glucose levels.
- Preventing pressure sores and injuries.
- Non-pharmacological management: carotid endarterectomy, thrombectomy, dietary plan, smoking cessation, and regular exercise.
Respiratory Failure
- A condition where the lungs are unable to take in enough oxygen or remove enough carbon dioxide.
Causes of Respiratory Failure
- Acute: life-threatening derangements in arterial blood gases and acid-base status.
- Chronic: less dramatic, with pH levels possibly being normal due to renal compensation.
Disorders of the Pulmonary System
- Obstructive airway diseases: asthma, COPD, cystic fibrosis, and bronchiectasis.
- Restrictive airway diseases: ARDS, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and interstitial lung disease.
Diagnosis and Treatment of Thyroid Disorders
- Diagnosis: measuring free thyroxine (T4) and free triiodothyronine (T3) levels.
- Treatment: symptom control, reducing thyroid hormone levels using antithyroid medications, radioactive iodine therapy, or surgery.
Thyrotoxic Crisis
- A rare but life-threatening condition that occurs in individuals with undiagnosed or partially treated Graves' disease, characterized by fever, tachycardia, and cardiac decompensation.
Understand the different stages of cell division, including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase in mitosis, and the two cycles of meiosis. Learn about interphase and the preparation of the cell for division.
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