Cell Division and Cycle Control
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Cell Division and Cycle Control

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Questions and Answers

What defines the end of the mitotic phase during cell division?

  • Completion of cytokinesis (correct)
  • Replication of DNA
  • The separation of sister chromatids
  • Formation of nuclear envelope
  • Which of the following is NOT a criterion for passing the G2/M checkpoint?

  • Large cell volume
  • Presence of DNA damage (correct)
  • Sufficient number of organelles
  • Complete replication of genome
  • Which statement about cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) is accurate?

  • Cdk levels fluctuate while cyclin levels remain constant.
  • Cyclins activate Cdks by binding to them at specific stages. (correct)
  • Cyclin-dependent kinases remain inactive without cyclin.
  • Cyclin levels remain constant throughout the cell cycle.
  • What failure at the metaphase-to-anaphase transition checkpoint indicates a potential issue?

    <p>Chromatids not properly assembled on mitotic spindle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic correctly describes cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)?

    <p>Their activity is contingent upon cyclin binding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At which checkpoint does a cell verify that the genome has fully replicated without damage?

    <p>G2/M checkpoint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical relationship between Cdk levels and cyclin levels during the cell cycle?

    <p>Cdk levels remain constant and exceed cyclin levels significantly.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following checkpoints is responsible for determining if each kinetochore is properly attached to a spindle fiber?

    <p>Metaphase checkpoint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of point mutations in protein kinases like Src on enzymatic activity?

    <p>They enhance enzymatic activity and broaden substrate specificity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is gene amplification in the context of cancer cells?

    <p>An increase in the number of copies of a gene, leading to excessive synthesis of its product.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes RAS in human tumors?

    <p>Point mutation of RAS is the most common abnormality in human tumors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) affect Ras activity?

    <p>They inactivate Ras by stimulating the hydrolysis of its bound GTP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of mutation is most frequently associated with cholangiocarcinoma and pancreatic adenocarcinoma?

    <p>Point mutation of RAS.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does Myc typically play in cells experiencing gene amplification?

    <p>It is overproduced, promoting increased cell division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common effect of errors in DNA repair or chromosome segregation?

    <p>Changes in chromosome structure leading to increased gene copy number.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which growth factor pathways are heavily dependent on Ras?

    <p>EGF and PDGF signal transduction pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of the cell cycle directly involves DNA synthesis?

    <p>S Phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the Anaphase-Promoting Complex (APC) in the cell cycle?

    <p>To trigger sister-chromatid separation and cyclin degradation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of checkpoint proteins in the cell cycle?

    <p>To enforce control mechanisms ensuring proper cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily associated with the activation of S-Cdk complexes?

    <p>S phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which tumor suppressor is associated with the G1 checkpoint and its dysfunction leading to cancer development?

    <p>RB1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does genomic instability contribute to cancer progression?

    <p>By promoting the accumulation of genetic alterations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a mutation in a tumor suppressor gene contribute to tumorigenesis?

    <p>By resulting in a loss of function that is usually genetically recessive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding the p53 gene?

    <p>It is known as 'THE GUARDIAN OF THE GENOME'.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of cell cycle regulation, what effect does CDK-dependent phosphorylation of Rb have?

    <p>It releases active E2F transcription factors to promote S phase entry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of dysfunctional cell cycle checkpoints?

    <p>Increased genomic instability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Knudson's two-hit hypothesis primarily concerned with?

    <p>The requirement of two mutations in tumor suppressor genes for tumor formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the activation of M-Cdk complexes?

    <p>Completion of DNA replication in S phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event occurs during cytokinesis?

    <p>Division of the cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule is primarily involved in promoting cell division within the cell cycle?

    <p>Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of cyclin–Cdk complexes in the cell cycle?

    <p>To initiate transitions between different phases of the cell cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What signifies the commitment of a cell to a new division cycle?

    <p>Formation of active G1/S-Cdk complexes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary action of the Rb protein when it is hypophosphorylated?

    <p>It binds E2F transcription factors and inhibits transcription.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the role of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) in the G1/S transition?

    <p>CDKs phosphorylate the Rb protein, leading to E2F release.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What consequence follows the mutation or loss of the Rb gene?

    <p>Uncontrolled cell proliferation leading to cancer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Rb protein coordinate DNA replication during the S phase?

    <p>It recruits proteins that activate S-phase gene expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What inhibits the phosphorylation of the Rb protein?

    <p>Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKIs).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the Rb protein is phosphorylated by CDK complexes?

    <p>It releases E2F transcription factors to activate S-phase genes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what state does the Rb protein exert its anti-proliferative effects?

    <p>Hypophosphorylated and bound to E2F transcription factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do histone deacetylases and histone methyltransferases play in relation to Rb protein?

    <p>They are recruited by Rb to inhibit transcription of certain genes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cytokinesis

    • The final stage of mitosis where two daughter cells separate.
    • Each daughter cell contains a nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles.

    Cell Cycle Checkpoints

    • Start checkpoint (G1/S)
      • Checks for sufficient organelles and cell volume.
    • G2/M checkpoint
      • Checks for a fully replicated genome and large cell volume.
    • Metaphase-to-anaphase transition
      • Checks for attachment of each kinetochore to a spindle fiber and ensures chromatids are properly assembled on the mitotic spindle.
    • Failure of any checkpoint can lead to DNA damage and cell cycle arrest.

    Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Activation

    • The cell cycle control system relies on cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks).
    • Cdks are activated at specific cell cycle stages by regulatory subunits called cyclins.
    • Cyclins fluctuate in levels throughout the cell cycle.
    • Cdks are crucial for the cell cycle control system.

    Oscillations in Cyclin Levels

    • Levels of three major cyclin types oscillate throughout the cell cycle.
    • This drives oscillations in cyclin-Cdk complexes responsible for cell cycle events.
    • Cdk levels remain constant and exceed cyclin levels.
    • Cyclin-Cdk complexes form parallel to cyclin levels.

    Phases of the Cell Cycle

    • G1/S-Cdk complexes: commit the cell to a new division cycle at the Start checkpoint in late G1.
    • S-Cdk complexes: initiate DNA replication at the beginning of S phase.
    • M-Cdk activation: occurs after the completion of S phase, leading to progression through the G2/M checkpoint and mitotic spindle assembly.

    Anaphase-Promoting Complex (APC) Activity

    • Triggers sister-chromatid separation during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition.
    • Inactivates Cdks by degrading S and M cyclins.
    • Promotes completion of mitosis and cytokinesis.
    • Maintained in G1 until G1/S-Cdk activity rises again.

    Tumor Suppressor Genes

    • Encode proteins that normally restrain cell proliferation and tumorigenesis.
    • Mutations in these genes increase the likelihood of cancer formation.
    • Loss of function is often recessive, requiring mutations in both copies of the gene.
    • Regulate cell growth by inhibiting proliferation.
    • Their loss of function is a key event in carcinogenesis.

    Knudson's Two-Hit Hypothesis

    • Proposed by Alfred Knudson in 1971.
    • Based on epidemiological studies of retinoblastoma.
    • Explains the genetic basis of retinoblastoma, a tumor of the retina that can be inherited or occur sporadically.

    Rb Protein Role in Cell Cycle

    • G1/S Transition: When appropriate signals for proliferation are received (like growth factors), CDKs are activated.
    • Phosphorylation of Rb: CDKs phosphorylate Rb, releasing E2F transcription factors.
    • E2F Activation: Released E2F proteins activate genes required for DNA replication and entry into the S phase of the cell cycle.

    Rb Protein in DNA Replication

    • Continues to play a role in coordinating DNA replication during S phase.
    • Ensures accurate replication and controlled cell cycle progression.

    Rb Protein Function

    • Acts as a tumor suppressor by regulating cell cycle progression and preventing uncontrolled cell division.
    • Mutations or loss of the Rb gene can lead to cancer.

    RB Protein and Transcription Factors

    • Hypophosphorylated Rb binds to E2F transcription factors and inhibits transcription of S phase genes.
    • Phosphorylation of Rb by CDK4, CDK6, and CDK2 complexes releases E2F.
    • E2F activates transcription of S-phase genes.
    • CDKIs inhibit the phosphorylation of Rb by inactivating cyclin-CDK complexes.

    Rb Protein and Cell Cycle Control

    • Plays a critical role in regulating the cell cycle by controlling the G1-to-S phase transition.
    • In its active form, Rb is hypophosphorylated and binds to E2F, inhibiting cell proliferation.
    • Mutations in RB can lead to excessive cell proliferation and cancer.

    Mechanisms of Oncogene Activation

    • Point Mutations: Occur in specific genes, altering the function of their encoded proteins.
    • Gene Amplification: Increase in the number of copies of a gene, leading to overproduction of the gene product.
    • Translocation or Transposition: Changes in chromosome structure or number that can increase gene copy number.

    RAS Gene

    • Most commonly mutated oncogene in human tumors.
    • Point mutation of RAS is the most frequent abnormality in human tumors.
    • Multiple growth factor signal transduction pathways depend on RAS.
    • Mutated in 15-20% of cancers.

    RAS Function and Regulation

    • Small GTPase that acts as a molecular switch.
    • Active when bound to GTP and inactive when bound to GDP.
    • GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) inactivate Ras by stimulating GTP hydrolysis.
    • Guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) activate Ras by promoting GTP binding.

    Cell Cycle and Cancer

    • Dysregulation of the cell cycle is a fundamental feature of cancer development.
    • Uncontrolled cell growth and division are hallmarks of cancer.
    • Cell cycle control mechanisms are disrupted in cancer.

    Disrupted Cell Cycle Checkpoints

    • Cell cycle checkpoints are essential for ensuring proper cell cycle progression.
    • Loss or dysfunction of these checkpoints can lead to genetic instability and contribute to cancer development.
    • Defects in the G1 checkpoint can allow cells with DNA damage to enter the cell cycle.

    Genomic Instability

    • Dysregulation of the cell cycle can lead to genomic instability, a hallmark of cancer.
    • Errors in DNA replication, impaired DNA repair, and chromosome missegregation contribute to genomic instability.
    • This fuels the genetic diversity of cancer cells, promoting tumor progression.

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    Description

    This quiz covers key concepts in cytokinesis and cell cycle checkpoints, including the critical roles of cyclin-dependent kinases and the regulation of cyclin levels. Test your understanding of how these processes ensure proper cell division and the consequences of failures in the cell cycle control system.

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