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Questions and Answers
What initiates the fusion of the vesicle with the plasma membrane during neurotransmitter release?
What initiates the fusion of the vesicle with the plasma membrane during neurotransmitter release?
Which mechanism describes the rapid release of neurotransmitters through a small opening in the vesicle?
Which mechanism describes the rapid release of neurotransmitters through a small opening in the vesicle?
What triggers an action potential in muscle cells at the neuromuscular junction?
What triggers an action potential in muscle cells at the neuromuscular junction?
What is the purpose of the safety factor in muscle action potentials?
What is the purpose of the safety factor in muscle action potentials?
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Which type of receptor is involved in the binding of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction?
Which type of receptor is involved in the binding of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction?
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What is the primary function of ribosomes in a cell?
What is the primary function of ribosomes in a cell?
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Which structure is closely linked to the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Which structure is closely linked to the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
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What role does the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum play in the cell?
What role does the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum play in the cell?
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Which process occurs within the mitochondria?
Which process occurs within the mitochondria?
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What distinguishing feature do mitochondria have?
What distinguishing feature do mitochondria have?
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What is the primary function of lysosomes?
What is the primary function of lysosomes?
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Which molecules can pass through the outer mitochondrial membrane?
Which molecules can pass through the outer mitochondrial membrane?
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What is the primary role of nuclear receptors?
What is the primary role of nuclear receptors?
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Which statement about steroid receptors is true?
Which statement about steroid receptors is true?
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How do G-coupled receptors generally transmit signals?
How do G-coupled receptors generally transmit signals?
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What is the function of enzyme-linked receptors?
What is the function of enzyme-linked receptors?
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Which type of G-coupled receptor is associated with inhibiting cAMP production?
Which type of G-coupled receptor is associated with inhibiting cAMP production?
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What does the binding of thyroid hormones primarily affect?
What does the binding of thyroid hormones primarily affect?
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What occurs when TSH binds to its receptor?
What occurs when TSH binds to its receptor?
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What is phosphorylation in biochemical terms?
What is phosphorylation in biochemical terms?
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What characterizes GTP binding as a signaling mechanism?
What characterizes GTP binding as a signaling mechanism?
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What is the main function of histones in the cell?
What is the main function of histones in the cell?
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Which phase is characterized by the completion of DNA replication?
Which phase is characterized by the completion of DNA replication?
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What significant event occurs during anaphase?
What significant event occurs during anaphase?
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What is the main purpose of checkpoints in the cell cycle?
What is the main purpose of checkpoints in the cell cycle?
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What is a key feature of metaphase during cell division?
What is a key feature of metaphase during cell division?
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Which protein complex is crucial for binding chromosomes during cell division?
Which protein complex is crucial for binding chromosomes during cell division?
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Which phase follows cytokinesis in the cell cycle?
Which phase follows cytokinesis in the cell cycle?
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What is one consequence of apoptosis?
What is one consequence of apoptosis?
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What characterizes the G0 phase of a cell?
What characterizes the G0 phase of a cell?
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What components form a nucleosome?
What components form a nucleosome?
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What is the primary buffering system in the body that acts quickly to maintain pH?
What is the primary buffering system in the body that acts quickly to maintain pH?
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Which of the following processes occurs when the body's pH decreases due to increased H+ ions?
Which of the following processes occurs when the body's pH decreases due to increased H+ ions?
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How does the kidney contribute to the control of plasma bicarbonate?
How does the kidney contribute to the control of plasma bicarbonate?
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What happens to CO2 during gas exchange in the lungs?
What happens to CO2 during gas exchange in the lungs?
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What is the consequence of pH levels dropping below 6.8?
What is the consequence of pH levels dropping below 6.8?
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Which statement about buffers is accurate?
Which statement about buffers is accurate?
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What defines respiratory acidosis?
What defines respiratory acidosis?
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In the oxygen transport process, what role does haemoglobin play?
In the oxygen transport process, what role does haemoglobin play?
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What is the main issue when the body experiences metabolic acidosis?
What is the main issue when the body experiences metabolic acidosis?
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What is the consequence of pH fluctuations in the body?
What is the consequence of pH fluctuations in the body?
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Study Notes
Cell Structure & Function
- The cell is the basic structural unit of living organisms.
- Protoplasm is the living part of the cell, containing organelles.
- Approximately 37 trillion cells are in the human body.
- There are over 200 different cell types.
Parts of the Cell
- Ribosomes: Composed of a large (60S) and small (40S) subunit containing rRNA. These translate mRNA into proteins.
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, packages, concentrates, and stores secretory products (proteins and lipids). It works closely with the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER).
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Involved in protein synthesis and processing.
- Rough ER (RER): aids in protein synthesis and glycosylation.
- Smooth ER (SER): involved in lipid metabolism, steroid hormone synthesis, and detoxification.
- Vesicles: Small cellular containers involved in various functions like enzyme storage, molecule transport, and secretion.
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Vesicle Types:
- Granules: release molecules outside of the cell via exocytosis
- Lysosomes: break down excess or worn-out parts of the cell.
- Peroxisomes: produce hydrogen peroxide and break down fatty acids.
Mitochondria
- Powerhouse of the cell
- Membrane-bound organelle
- Contains its own DNA and some proteins.
- Involved in energy production (ATP), hormone signals, steroid synthesis, and heat production.
Nucleus
- Location of DNA replication and transcription.
- Contains the cell's genome (complete set of DNA instructions).
- Multiple nuclei are present in some cells.
- The nuclear membrane has supporting lamins which are protein filaments that regulate the size, shape, and chromatin arrangement of DNA.
- Nucleolus is where ribosomes are produced.
- Nuclear pores monitor and regulate the passage of substances.
Cytoskeleton
- Network of filaments (microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments)
- Provides support and structure to the cell.
- Aids in cell movement.
- Involved in cell division (mitosis).
Microtubules
- Created from the microtubule organizing center (MTOC).
- Formed from tubulin heterodimers, with a positive and negative end.
- Involved in mitosis, organelle deployment, and transport.
- Cilia are an example of microtubules, including primary cilia for signaling, motile cilia for movement, and nodal cilia for development.
Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
- Thin and flexible
- Formed from actin monomers, forming a double helix.
- Involved in cell movement, endocytosis/exocytosis, and maintaining cell shape.
- Types include stress fibers, cell cortex, lamellipodia, and filopodia.
Intermediate Filaments
- Long, rope-like proteins
- Stabilize the cell under mechanical stress.
- Involved in cell adhesion and maintaining shape.
- Several types based on function (eg, keratins, vimentin, desmin, neurofilaments, and lamins for nuclear stability)
Cell-cell junctions
- Specialized structures that connect neighboring cells
- Types: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions, hemidesmosomes
- Functions: seal cells together, provide cell adhesion connect cytoskeletal elements and allow passage of small molecules
Cell Membrane
- Composed of phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
- Relatively impermeable.
- Contains cholesterol and proteins that maintain shape and regulation.
- Transports molecules across the membrane (passive and active).
Membrane Trafficking
- Process of transporting molecules within and outside of a cell
- Different methods of transport; endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated), and exocytosis.
Cell Homeostasis
- Maintaining a stable internal environment within the cell.
- Fluid membrane due to movements of lipid bilayer (flip-flop, flexion, and rotation)
Action potential
- A rapid change in membrane voltage across the plasma membrane of a cell, typically neurons or muscle cells, characterized by a rapid depolarization followed by repolarization.
- Crucial for transmitting signals.
Cell Signaling
- Communication between cells.
- Types: juxtacrine, paracrine, synaptic, endocrine.
- Cell surface receptors and intracellular receptors.
- Mechanisms: signal transduction pathways.
Principal of Cell Signaling
- Reception, transduction, response
- Extracellular signal molecule (ligand) – receptor protein – transduction –response.
Cell Cycle
- Cell division.
- Phases: cell growth (G1), DNA replication (S), preparation for division (G2), and division (M).
Apoptosis
- Programmed cell death.
- Types: intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.
- Important for development, maintenance, and health.
Enzyme Kinetics
- Studying the rates of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
- Variables: Vmax, Km, temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme and inhibitor concentration.
- Models: induced fit and transition state.
Enzyme Inhibition
- Blocking enzyme activity.
- Types: competitive and non-competitive inhibition.
- Impacts on enzyme activity.
Allosteric Regulation
- Regulation of enzyme activity through allosteric sites.
- Modification of enzyme activity.
- Feedback mechanisms
Acids, Bases and Buffering systems
- Fundamentals of pH.
- Importance of bicarbonate buffering system in maintaining blood pH.
Oxygen Transport
- Transport of oxygen from the lungs to tissues.
- Role of hemoglobin
- Factors Affecting Oxygen Binding
Neuromuscular Junctions
- Chemical synapse between motor neurons and muscle fibers (myocytes).
- Steps of neuromuscular transmission: action potential arrival, neurotransmitter release, binding to receptors, muscle contraction.
- Recycling of postsynaptic membrane.
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Description
Test your knowledge on key concepts in cell biology and neurobiology. This quiz covers neurotransmitter release, muscle cell function, and the roles of various cellular structures and organelles. Dive into topics such as action potentials, receptors, and the functions of ribosomes and mitochondria.
