Cell Biology and Genetics Quiz

Cell Theory:
- All living organisms are composed of cells.
- The cell is the basic unit of life.
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Types of Cells:
- Prokaryotic:
  - Lack a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
  - Generally smaller and simpler.
- Eukaryotic:
  - Contain a nucleus and organelles (e.g., plant and animal cells).
  - Larger and more complex.
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell; site of ATP production.
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
  - Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.
  - Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.
- Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for waste processing.
- Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier controlling substance movement.

DNA Structure:
- Double helix made of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
- A pairs with T, C pairs with G.
Gene Expression:
- Transcription: DNA → RNA in the nucleus.
- Translation: RNA → Protein in the cytoplasm.
Mendelian Genetics:
- Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate during gamete formation.
- Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes assort independently.
Genetic Variation:
- Caused by mutations, crossing over, and independent assortment.
- Can lead to phenotypic diversity.
Inheritance Patterns:
- Dominant vs. Recessive: Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles.
- Codominance: Both alleles are expressed (e.g., AB blood type).
- Sex-linked traits: Traits associated with sex chromosomes (e.g., color blindness).

Biomolecules:
- Carbohydrates:
  - Primary energy source.
  - Composed of sugars (e.g., glucose).
- Proteins:
  - Made of amino acids; function in structure, transport, and catalysis.
- Lipids:
  - Fats, oils, and phospholipids; energy storage and membrane structure.
- Nucleic Acids:
  - DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information.
Chemical Bonds:
- Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons between atoms.
- Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
- Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.
Water's Properties:
- Excellent solvent due to polarity.
- High specific heat capacity; stabilizes temperature.
- Cohesion and adhesion properties; important for biological processes.
pH and Buffers:
- pH scale measures acidity/alkalinity (0-14).
- Buffers help maintain stable pH in biological systems.

Cell Theory:
- Comprises the foundation of biology: all living organisms consist of cells, which are the fundamental unit of life, and all cells originate from existing cells.
Types of Cells:
- Prokaryotic Cells:
  - No nucleus, typically smaller and less complex, primarily represented by bacteria.
- Eukaryotic Cells:
  - Feature a defined nucleus and organelles, including plant and animal cells, larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Stores genetic material in the form of DNA.
- Mitochondria: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, they generate ATP through cellular respiration.
- Ribosomes: Sites for protein synthesis, can be free-floating or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
  - Rough ER is studded with ribosomes for protein synthesis; Smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification processes.
- Golgi Apparatus: Responsible for the modification, sorting, and packaging of proteins for secretion or use within the cell.
- Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.
- Cell Membrane: A semi-permeable barrier that regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell.

DNA Structure:
- Comprises a double helix formed by nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G), where A pairs with T and C pairs with G.
Gene Expression:
- Transcription: The process of synthesizing RNA from DNA within the nucleus.
- Translation: Conversion of RNA into proteins occurring in the cytoplasm.
Mendelian Genetics:
- Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation, ensuring each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.
- Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles for different genes segregate independently during gamete formation.
Genetic Variation:
- Arises from mutations, crossing over during meiosis, and independent assortment, contributing to phenotypic diversity within populations.
Inheritance Patterns:
- Dominant vs. Recessive Traits: Dominant alleles conceal the effects of recessive alleles.
- Codominance: Both alleles are simultaneously expressed, such as in AB blood type.
- Sex-Linked Traits: Associated with genes on sex chromosomes, examples include color blindness.

Biomolecules:
- Carbohydrates: Primary energy source for cells, composed of simple sugars like glucose.
- Proteins: Composed of amino acids; play vital roles in structure, transport, and enzyme activity.
- Lipids: Include fats, oils, and phospholipids; essential for energy storage and forming cell membranes.
- Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA store and transfer genetic information critical for cell function.
Chemical Bonds:
- Ionic Bonds: Formed through the transfer of electrons between atoms.
- Covalent Bonds: Created by sharing electrons between atoms, leading to stronger interactions.
- Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules, crucial for protein and nucleic acid structure.
Water's Properties:
- Acts as an excellent solvent due to its polarity, with high specific heat capacity that helps stabilize temperatures, aiding biological processes.
pH and Buffers:
- The pH scale, ranging from 0 to 14, measures acidity and alkalinity; buffers maintain stable pH levels for optimal function in biological systems.