Cell Biology and Genetics Quiz

Cell Theory:
- All living organisms are made of cells.
- The cell is the basic unit of life.
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Types of Cells:
- Prokaryotic: Simple, no nucleus, smaller (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic: Complex, contains a nucleus, larger (e.g., plants, animals).
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Contains DNA, controls cell activities.
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP.
- Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough ER (protein synthesis), Smooth ER (lipid synthesis).
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.
Cell Cycle:
- Stages: Interphase (G1, S, G2), Mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase), Cytokinesis.

Basic Concepts:
- Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
- Allele: Different forms of a gene.
- Genotype: Genetic makeup of an organism.
- Phenotype: Physical expression of the genotype.
Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Inheritance:
  - Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.
  - Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits segregate independently.
Inheritance Patterns:
- Dominant and Recessive: Dominant alleles mask recessive ones.
- Codominance: Both alleles contribute to the phenotype (e.g., AB blood type).
- Incomplete Dominance: Blended phenotype (e.g., red and white flowers producing pink).

Levels of Organization:
- Individual, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere.
Ecosystem Components:
- Biotic Factors: Living organisms (plants, animals, bacteria).
- Abiotic Factors: Non-living elements (water, soil, climate).
Energy Flow:
- Producers: Organisms that produce their own food (e.g., plants).
- Consumers: Organisms that consume others (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores).
- Decomposers: Break down dead material, recycling nutrients.
Biogeochemical Cycles:
- Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Water cycle.

Theory of Evolution:
- Proposed by Charles Darwin; natural selection as the mechanism for evolution.
Natural Selection:
- Variability in traits, competition for resources, survival of the fittest, reproduction.
Evidence for Evolution:
- Fossil records, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, biogeography.
Speciation:
- Process by which new species arise.
- Types: Allopatric (geographic isolation), Sympatric (reproductive isolation).
Phylogenetics:
- Study of evolutionary relationships among species using phylogenetic trees.

Cell Theory: Comprises three core principles: all living things are composed of cells, cells are the fundamental units of life, and new cells originate from existing cells.
Types of Cells:
- Prokaryotic: Characterized by simplicity and absence of a nucleus; examples include bacteria.
- Eukaryotic: More complex with a defined nucleus; includes plant and animal cells.
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Houses genetic material (DNA) and regulates cellular functions.
- Mitochondria: Known as the cell's powerhouse; responsible for ATP production.
- Ribosomes: The site where protein synthesis occurs.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum:
  - Rough ER is involved in protein synthesis.
  - Smooth ER functions in lipid synthesis.
- Golgi Apparatus: Processes, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or use within the cell.
Cell Cycle: Consists of various phases: Interphase (which includes G1, S, G2), Mitosis (stages of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase), followed by Cytokinesis.

Basic Concepts:
- Gene: A DNA segment coding for a specific protein.
- Allele: Variations of a gene that may produce different traits.
- Genotype: The complete set of genes in an organism.
- Phenotype: The observable traits that result from the genotype.
Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Inheritance include the:
  - Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate during the formation of gametes.
  - Law of Independent Assortment: Separate genes for separate traits are passed independently of one another.
Inheritance Patterns:
- Dominant and Recessive: Dominant alleles override recessive ones.
- Codominance: Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, exemplified by AB blood type.
- Incomplete Dominance: Results in a blend of traits, as seen when red and white flowers produce pink offspring.

Levels of Organization: Ranging from individual organisms to populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere.
Ecosystem Components:
- Biotic Factors: Living elements such as flora and fauna.
- Abiotic Factors: Non-living components like water, soil, and climate.
Energy Flow:
- Producers: Autotrophic organisms that generate their food (e.g., plants).
- Consumers: Heterotrophic organisms that consume other living things (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores).
- Decomposers: Organisms that break down dead matter, recycling nutrients within ecosystems.
Biogeochemical Cycles: Essential cycles include the carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles, which describe the movement of elements through different parts of the environment.

Theory of Evolution: Formulated by Charles Darwin, emphasizing natural selection as the primary driving force behind evolutionary change.
Natural Selection: Involves variation among individuals, competition for resources, survival of those best adapted, and the reproduction of the fittest.
Evidence for Evolution: Supported by multiple lines of inquiry including fossil records, comparative anatomy, studies in molecular biology, and geographic distribution of species.
Speciation: The process through which new species develop; can occur via:
- Allopatric Speciation: Resulting from geographic separation.
- Sympatric Speciation: Due to reproductive barriers while living in the same area.
Phylogenetics: Analyzes evolutionary relationships among species through the construction and interpretation of phylogenetic trees.