Cell Biology and Genetics Quiz

Cell Theory
- All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
- The cell is the basic unit of life.
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Types of Cells
- Prokaryotic: Simple, no nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic: Complex, with nucleus (e.g., plant and animal cells).
Cell Organelles
- Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, produces energy (ATP).
- Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER has ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis; Smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis.
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.
- Lysosomes: Contains digestive enzymes to break down waste.

DNA Structure
- Double helix made of nucleotides (A, T, C, G).
Gene Expression
- Transcription: DNA to mRNA in the nucleus.
- Translation: mRNA to protein at ribosomes.
Mendelian Genetics
- Laws of Inheritance:
  - Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate during gamete formation.
  - Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits assort independently.

Natural Selection
- Mechanism of evolution where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Speciation
- Process by which new species arise.
- Can occur through mechanisms such as allopatric or sympatric speciation.

Levels of Organization
- Individual, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere.
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
- Biotic: Living components (plants, animals, bacteria).
- Abiotic: Non-living components (water, temperature, soil).
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
- Primary producers (plants) → Primary consumers (herbivores) → Secondary consumers (carnivores).
- Energy decreases with each trophic level.

Major Systems
- Circulatory System: Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones.
- Respiratory System: Facilitates gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
- Digestive System: Breaks down food into nutrients.
- Nervous System: Controls body functions and responses.
Homeostasis
- The process by which biological systems maintain stability while adjusting to conditions optimal for survival.

Photosynthesis
- Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
- Occurs in chloroplasts; overall equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2.
Plant Structures
- Roots: Anchor plant and absorb water/nutrients.
- Stems: Support and transport.
- Leaves: Site of photosynthesis.

Bacteria
- Single-celled prokaryotes, can be beneficial or pathogenic.
Viruses
- Non-living entities that require host cells to replicate; consist of genetic material and protein coat.
Fungi
- Eukaryotic organisms, decomposers that absorb nutrients from organic matter.

Genetic Engineering
- Techniques to modify organisms’ genetic material (e.g., CRISPR, gene therapy).
Cloning
- Producing genetically identical individuals.
Bioremediation
- Use of microorganisms to remove pollutants from the environment.

Cell Theory: Fundamental principles stating all living organisms are made up of cells, which are the basic units of life, and that all cells originate from pre-existing cells.
Types of Cells:
- Prokaryotic Cells: Simple structure without a nucleus; examples include bacteria.
- Eukaryotic Cells: More complex, containing a nucleus; examples include plant and animal cells.
Key Organelles:
- Nucleus: Stores genetic material, specifically DNA.
- Mitochondria: Known as the powerhouse of the cell; responsible for producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for energy.
- Ribosomes: Sites for protein synthesis, can be found free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
  - Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis.
  - Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; involved in lipid synthesis and metabolism.
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for distribution.
- Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for breaking down waste materials and cellular debris.

DNA Structure: Composed of a double helix format, made up of nucleotides represented by the bases adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
Gene Expression:
- Transcription converts DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus.
- Translation occurs at ribosomes, where mRNA is translated into proteins.
Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Inheritance:
  - Law of Segregation: During gamete formation, alleles separate from each other.
  - Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes assort independently in gametes.

Natural Selection: A key mechanism of evolution emphasizing that organisms better suited to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Speciation: The process through which new species evolve, which can occur through allopatric speciation (geographically isolated) or sympatric speciation (same geographical area).

Levels of Organization: Ranges from individual organisms to populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and ultimately the biosphere.
Biotic and Abiotic Factors:
- Biotic Factors: Include all living components such as plants, animals, and bacteria.
- Abiotic Factors: Non-living components including water, temperature, and soil.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems: Begins with primary producers (plants), followed by primary consumers (herbivores) and secondary consumers (carnivores), with energy decreasing at each trophic level.

Major Body Systems:
- Circulatory System: Responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.
- Respiratory System: Facilitates gas exchange, mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Digestive System: Breaks down food into nutrients for absorption.
- Nervous System: Coordinates body functions and responses to stimuli.
Homeostasis: The regulatory process by which biological systems maintain stability while adapting to internal and external changes.

Photosynthesis: The process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose), occurring in chloroplasts; represented by the equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2.
Plant Structures:
- Roots: Anchor the plant while absorbing water and nutrients from the soil.
- Stems: Provide structural support and transport nutrients and water.
- Leaves: Primary site for photosynthesis.

Bacteria: Single-celled prokaryotic organisms that can have beneficial roles or be pathogenic.
Viruses: Non-living entities requiring a host cell for replication, typically composed of genetic material encased in a protein coat.
Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms that act as decomposers, absorbing nutrients from organic matter.

Genetic Engineering: Methods to alter organisms' genetic material, exemplified by techniques such as CRISPR and gene therapy.
Cloning: The process of generating genetically identical organisms.
Bioremediation: The use of microorganisms to clean up environmental pollutants, enhancing ecosystem health.