Cell Biology and Genetics Overview

Cell Theory: All living organisms are composed of cells; cells are the basic unit of life; all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells:
- Prokaryotic: No nucleus, smaller, simpler (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic: Nucleus present, larger, more complex (e.g., plants, animals).
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Control center, contains DNA.
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse, site of ATP production.
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough (with ribosomes) and Smooth (lipid synthesis).
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

DNA Structure: Double helix composed of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
Alleles: Different versions of a gene (dominant vs. recessive).
Mendelian Genetics: Principles of inheritance (e.g., Law of Segregation, Law of Independent Assortment).
Punnett Squares: Tool for predicting genetic outcomes of crosses.

Natural Selection: Mechanism of evolution where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Species: A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Fossil Record: Provides evidence for evolution and the history of life on Earth.
Common Descent: Concept that all species share a common ancestor.

Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with their environment.
Biomes: Large ecological areas with distinct climates and organisms (e.g., tundra, rainforest).
Food Chains and Webs: Illustrate feeding relationships; energy flows from producers to consumers.
Population Dynamics: Study of how populations change over time, influenced by birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration.

Body Systems:
- Circulatory System: Transports blood, nutrients, gases.
- Respiratory System: Gas exchange, oxygen intake, carbon dioxide removal.
- Digestive System: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients.
- Nervous System: Controls body functions, processes sensory information.
Homeostasis: The body’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment.

Bacteria: Prokaryotic microorganisms, can be beneficial or pathogenic.
Viruses: Acellular entities that require a host to replicate.
Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms, can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds, mushrooms).
Parasites: Organisms that live on or in a host, causing harm.

Macromolecules:
- Carbohydrates: Energy storage (e.g., glucose, starch).
- Proteins: Made of amino acids, perform various functions (enzymes, structure).
- Lipids: Fats and oils, important for cell membranes.
- Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, store and transmit genetic information.

Genetic Engineering: Alteration of an organism's DNA to achieve desired traits.
CRISPR: A tool for editing genes with precision.
Cloning: Producing genetically identical individuals.
Bioremediation: Use of microorganisms to remove pollutants from the environment.

Cell Theory consists of three main principles: all living organisms are made of cells, cells are the fundamental unit of life, and cells originate from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a nucleus, generally smaller and less complex, exemplified by bacteria.
Eukaryotic Cells: Feature a defined nucleus, are larger, and exhibit greater complexity, represented by plants and animals.
Nucleus: Acts as the control center of the cell, housing genetic material (DNA).
Mitochondria: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, where ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is produced.
Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis; essential for translating genetic information into proteins.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Divided into two types: Rough ER (with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis) and Smooth ER (involved in lipid synthesis).
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport or secretion.

DNA Structure: Comprises a double helix formed by nucleotide pairs: adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine.
Gene: A DNA segment that codes for a specific protein, fundamental to heredity.
Alleles: Variants of a gene; can be classified as dominant or recessive, influencing traits.
Mendelian Genetics: Grounded in observance of inheritance patterns, including the Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment.
Punnett Squares: Utilized as a visual tool to predict potential genetic outcomes from specific parental combinations.

Natural Selection: The process where organisms adapt better to their environment tend to survive and reproduce, shaping evolution.
Species Definition: Comprised of organisms that can interbreed and produce viable offspring.
Fossil Record: A historical account providing evidence of species’ evolution and the timeline of life's history on Earth.
Common Descent: Suggests that diverse species share a common ancestor, highlighting interconnectedness in life's evolution.

Ecosystem: Represents a network of living organisms interacting with each other and their physical environment.
Biomes: Large ecological regions distinguished by specific climate conditions and their characteristic flora and fauna, including tundra and rainforest.
Food Chains and Webs: Displays the flow of energy through ecosystems, transitioning from producers (e.g., plants) to various levels of consumers (e.g., herbivores, carnivores).
Population Dynamics: Examines changes in population sizes over time, influenced by birth and death rates, as well as migration patterns.

Body Systems: Include several essential systems:
- Circulatory System: Responsible for transporting blood, nutrients, and gases throughout the body.
- Respiratory System: Facilitates gas exchange by bringing in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
- Digestive System: Engages in breaking down food to absorb necessary nutrients.
- Nervous System: Regulates bodily functions and sensory processing.
Homeostasis: The process through which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Bacteria: Prokaryotic microorganisms that can have beneficial roles or cause disease.
Viruses: Non-cellular entities that rely on host cells to reproduce and spread.
Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms with species varying from unicellular yeasts to multicellular molds and mushrooms.
Parasites: Organisms that reside on or in a host, often causing harm or disease.

Macromolecules include:
- Carbohydrates: Primary source of energy in living organisms (e.g., glucose, starch).
- Proteins: Composed of amino acids, they serve diverse roles such as catalysis (enzymes) and structural support.
- Lipids: Encompass fats and oils, crucial for forming cell membranes and storing energy.
- Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, responsible for storing and conveying genetic information.

Genetic Engineering: Involves modifying an organism's DNA to produce desired characteristics or traits.
CRISPR: A revolutionary gene-editing technology that allows precise alterations in genetic sequences.
Cloning: The process of creating genetically identical organisms from a single parent organism.
Bioremediation: The application of microorganisms to detoxify polluted environments, aiding ecological recovery.