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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a morphological feature of a metaphase chromosome?

  • Number of chromosomes (correct)
  • Chromosome length
  • Position of the centromere
  • Banding pattern

What type of molecule does tRNA transport?

  • Lipids
  • Amino acids (correct)
  • Nucleotides
  • Sugars

A scientist is studying a new virus. He notices that it has a high mutation rate. Which of the following enzymes is most likely deficient or absent in this virus?

  • Reverse transcriptase
  • RNA polymerase
  • Integrase
  • Proofreading DNA polymerase (correct)

During which phase of mitosis are sister chromatids separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell?

<p>Anaphase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of a buffer in a biological system?

<p>To maintain a stable pH (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the initiation of translation, what event signifies the correct assembly of the ribosomal complex?

<p>The large subunit and small subunit become conjoined to begin translation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lysosomes are essential for cellular homeostasis. Which of the following best describes their primary function?

<p>Break down of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Heterochromatin is a tightly packed form of DNA. What is the functional consequence of this condensed state during interphase?

<p>All answers are correct (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Orphan receptors are a unique class of receptors. What is the distinguishing characteristic of the ligands for which 'orphan' receptors are intended?

<p>Unknown ligands (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The electron transport chain is a critical component of cellular respiration. Where does this process take place in eukaryotic cells?

<p>The inner membrane of the mitochondria (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of basic proteins or ions in the tertiary structure of RNA?

<p>Neutralizing the negative charge of RNA. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key structural feature characterizes the pseudouridine loop (T-loop) of tRNA?

<p>It contains an unpaired CCA sequence at the 3' end. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are ionotropic receptors preferred for neurotransmitters when a rapid cellular response is required?

<p>They directly gate ion channels, bypassing complex signaling cascades. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which amino acid contains a cyclic structure incorporated into its side chain?

<p>Proline (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are α-amino acids (excluding glycine) classified into D- or L- configurations?

<p>Based on the amino group orientation in the Fischer projection relative to the asymmetric carbon. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the hydrolysis of pyrophosphate (PPi) contribute to the irreversibility of DNA replication during elongation?

<p>It prevents the reverse reaction by removing a product of the polymerization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the underlying principle of combinatorial control in gene expression?

<p>Multiple transcriptional regulators work together to fine-tune gene expression. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a Fischer projection, where must the amino group be located on an L-amino acid (excluding glycine)?

<p>On the left side (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) in cellular signaling?

<p>It is a serine-threonine kinase that phosphorylates downstream targets. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pair of free amino acids primarily functions as excitatory neurotransmitters in the central nervous system?

<p>Glutamic acid and aspartic acid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do serine and glycine play in lipid metabolism?

<p>They serve as precursors in the synthesis of phospholipids. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Besides a protein component, what other type of molecule is commonly found in glycoproteins?

<p>Oligosaccharides (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are carbohydrates with more than 10 subunits categorized?

<p>Polysaccharides (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which free amino acids are notably involved in the synthesis of lipids and their derivatives?

<p>Serine and glycine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of chemical bond is responsible for the specific pairing between codon and anticodon bases during translation?

<p>Hydrogen bonds (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is a key characteristic of glutamic acid in neuronal signaling?

<p>It is a primary excitatory neurotransmitter that promotes neuronal firing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What property defines the location of hydrophobic components within a lipid bilayer?

<p>They are shielded within the lipid bilayer, away from water. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which free amino acid serves as a precursor for the synthesis of thyroid hormones and catecholamines?

<p>Tyrosine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a typical cell, approximately what percentage of the total RNA content does ribosomal RNA (rRNA) comprise?

<p>50-60% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are potassium ($K^+$) and sodium ($Na^+$) ions typically most concentrated in a mammalian cell?

<p>Potassium: intracellular, Sodium: extracellular (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cholesterol contribute to the structure and function of the cell membrane?

<p>Modulates membrane fluidity, maintaining flexibility and stability (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of including a positive control in a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) experiment?

<p>To verify that the analysis process is functioning properly by using a known DNA sample (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary biochemical outcome of cellular respiration?

<p>To break down glucose and produce ATP (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following sequences accurately represents the order of events in cellular respiration?

<p>Glycolysis → Krebs cycle → Electron transport chain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does increasing the length of the carbon chain in a carbohydrate molecule typically affect its solubility in water?

<p>Makes it less soluble in water (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A carbohydrate composed of more than 10 monosaccharide molecules is best described as a:

<p>Polysaccharide (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Histone H1 is MOST directly involved in which DNA condensation process?

<p>Formation of the 30 nm fiber (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of ligands are PRIMARILY transported through the circulatory system?

<p>Neurotransmitters and hormones, like adrenaline (epinephrine) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following phospholipid movements in the cell membrane is MOST likely to require enzymatic activity?

<p>Transverse “flip-flop” movement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the BEST definition of a codon?

<p>Three nucleotides of RNA (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the START codon typically recognized in eukaryotes during translation initiation?

<p>By scanning along the mRNA from the 5' end (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following molecules is a structural component of a glycolipid?

<p>Sphingosine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following DNA strands has the POTENTIAL to form a DNA duplex by pairing with itself at each position?

<p>5’-AAGCGCTT-3’ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the MOST important function of EDTA in blood collection for laboratory analysis?

<p>Prevents blood clotting by binding calcium ions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following features of the metaphase chromosome is not a morphological feature of the chromosome?

<p>Number of chromosomes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What compounds does tRNA transport?

<p>amino acids (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What interactions are not involved in the formation of the tertiary structure of RNA?

<p>Creation of an A-type helix (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the pseudouridine loop, or T-loop, of tRNA?

<p>It contains the site where the tRNA binds to the ribosome (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of receptors are designed for neurotransmitters when a rapid response is necessary?

<p>ionotropic (ion-channel-coupled) receptors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process causes the elongation of DNA replication to become an irreversible process?

<p>Hydrolysis of pyrophosphate (PPi) to inorganic phosphate PP (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is combinatorial control of gene expression?

<p>This is a process that involves the use of a group of transcriptional regulators working together to express a gene correctly (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase (MAPK)?

<p>The final serine-threonine kinase following the activation of Ras protein (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What element, apart from protein, can be a component of a glycoprotein?

<p>Oligosaccharides (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do we define carbohydrates that are made up of more than 10 subunits?

<p>Polysaccharides (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are HSCs collected via apheresis?

<p>Using fluorescent antibodies selective for the CD34 surface protein (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of bonds form between the codon-anticodon bases?

<p>Hydrogen bonds (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which segment of the lipid bilayer are its hydrophobic components contained?

<p>Inside the lipid bilayer (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What DNA repair process involves the MGMT protein, which removes the oxygen-bound methyl group 06 of guanine?

<p>Direct repair (DR) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What histone protein does not form part of the nucleosome core?

<p>H1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which phase of the cell cycle is the concentration of mitotic cyclin (cyclin B) the highest?

<p>In phase M (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under what conditions does programmed cell death (apoptosis) occur?

<p>when the activation of a cell-death intracellular program is initiated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many basic amino acids are found in human proteins?

<p>20 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of secondary structure of a protein is stabilized by the hydrogen bond between the NH and CO of the amino acid residue i and i+3?

<p>a-Helix (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle that the cell is in for the majority of the time. What phases does it include?

<p>G1, S, and G2 phases altogether (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What step does not occur during nucleotide excision repair?

<p>Removal of the damaged nitrogenous base by specific DNA glycosylase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a chromosome considered when its arms are equal in length?

<p>Metacentric (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which phase of mitosis do the sister chromosomes separate?

<p>In anaphase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the smallest living unit on Earth?

<p>the Cell (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What areas do chromosomes occupy in a cell between divisions?

<p>They occupy distinct areas in the interphase nucleus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which structure of RNA do apical loops (hairpins) exist?

<p>Secondary RNA structure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of membrane transport is the sodium-potassium pump classified as?

<p>Primary active transport (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The secondary lysosome is a result of the combination of:

<p>a primary lysosome with a phagosome (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when an mRNA attaches to a ribosome?

<p>the large subunit and small subunit become conjoined to begin translation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What functions do lysosomes perform in the cell?

<p>Break down of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In interphase, heterochromatin:

<p>all answers are correct (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For which ligands are "orphan" receptors intended?

<p>unknown ligands (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where does the electron transport chain occur?

<p>the inner membrane of the mitochondria (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of membrane transport is associated with the formation of a phagosome?

<p>phagocytosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many times does interphase DNA shorten into metaphase chromosomes?

<p>10,000x (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What compound is necessary for aerobic respiration in which the cell breaks down macromolecules stepwise for energy in the form of ATP?

<p>Oxygen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which DNA condensation process is histone H1 directly involved?

<p>formation of the 30nm fiber (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of ligands are transported through the circulatory system?

<p>neurotransmitters and hormones, like adrenalin (epinephrine) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following phospholipid movements may be catalyzed by enzymes in the cell membrane?

<p>Transverse &quot;flip-flop&quot; movement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a codon?

<p>Three nucleotides of RNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the START codon recognized in eukaryotes during translation initiation?

<p>Through the binding of the small unit of ribosome, mRNA and initiator tRNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a component of a glycolipid?

<p>sphingosine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following DNA strands can form a DNA duplex by pairing with itself at each position?

<p>5'-AAGCCGTT-3' (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of EDTA in blood collection and laboratory experiments?

<p>Prevents blood clotting by binding calcium ions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key safety consideration when using Midori Green in molecular biology experiments?

<p>It is toxic and should be handled with care, using gloves and eye protection (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of Midori Green in molecular biology?

<p>Stains the DNA for visualization in gel electrophoresis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure of a DNA helix?

<p>A double-stranded, right-handed helix (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In PCR, what is the purpose of the denaturation step?

<p>To separate the DNA strands by breaking hydrogen bonds (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of mitochondria in human cells?

<p>To generate ATP through cellular respiration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical annealing temperature used in PCR?

<p>50-65°C (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main feature of the structure of biological membranes?

<p>A fluid bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) made of?

<p>Nucleotides containing a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Metaphase chromosome features

Characteristics of chromosomes during metaphase, including morphology.

Banding pattern

A specific visual pattern seen in chromosomes during staining.

Centromere position

The location on a chromosome where the two sister chromatids are joined.

tRNA function

tRNA carries amino acids to ribosomes for protein synthesis.

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Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins that tRNA transports.

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Lysosome functions

Breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids; sorting transport vesicles; and storing excess macromolecules.

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Heterochromatin in interphase

Heterochromatin is genetically inactive, stains dark, and is in a condensed state during interphase.

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Orphan receptors

Receptors meant for unknown ligands or specific lipophilic hormones like vitamin D3, A, and others.

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Electron transport chain location

Occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, playing a key role in aerobic respiration.

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Phagocytosis

Type of membrane transport associated with the formation of a phagosome, engulfing large particles.

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Tertiary structure of RNA

The three-dimensional shape formed by RNA due to various interactions.

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Pseudouridine loop (T-loop)

Part of tRNA where it binds to ribosomes and contains a CCA sequence.

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Ionotropic receptors

Receptors that open a channel for rapid neurotransmitter responses.

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Combinatorial control of gene expression

The use of multiple transcriptional regulators to express a gene accurately.

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Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase (MAPK)

A serine-threonine kinase activated by Ras protein for signal transduction.

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Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates made up of more than 10 sugar subunits.

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Codon-anticodon bonds

Hydrogen bonds that form between mRNA codon and tRNA anticodon.

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Direct repair (DR)

DNA repair mechanism that uses MGMT protein to fix methylated guanine.

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Cyclin B concentration

Highest during phase M of the cell cycle to regulate mitosis.

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Programmed cell death (apoptosis)

A regulated process initiated inside the cell for its death.

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Histone H1

A protein involved in the condensation of DNA known as chromatin.

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Codon

A sequence of three nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid or signals the end of protein synthesis.

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Ligands in Circulation

Molecules transported through the blood, including neurotransmitters and hormones.

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Phospholipid Movements

The different ways phospholipids can move within the cell membrane, including lateral diffusion and flip-flop.

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EDTA Role

A chemical that prevents blood clotting by binding to calcium ions.

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Midori Green Use

A dye used to stain DNA for visibility in gel electrophoresis.

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Safety with Midori Green

Midori Green is toxic and requires careful handling, including gloves and eye protection.

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DNA Duplex Formation

When two complementary DNA strands bind with each other through base pairing.

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Dominant RNA in a cell

rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is the most abundant type of RNA in cells.

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K⁺ and Na⁺ ion distribution

Potassium (K⁺) is more concentrated intracellularly, while Sodium (Na⁺) is more extracellular.

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Cholesterol's role in membranes

Cholesterol modulates membrane fluidity, helping maintain stability and flexibility.

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Positive control in PCR

A positive control in PCR verifies the analysis process using a known DNA sample.

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Purpose of cellular respiration

Cellular respiration's main purpose is to break down glucose and produce ATP.

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Sequence of cellular respiration

The correct sequence is Glycolysis → Krebs cycle → Electron transport chain.

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Long carbon chains in carbohydrates

A long carbon chain in carbohydrates makes it less soluble in water.

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Large carbohydrate classification

A carbohydrate composed of more than 10 molecules is called a polysaccharide.

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D- or L-amino acids

Classification based on the orientation of the amino group in the Fischer projection relative to the chiral carbon.

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L-amino acid in Fischer

An α-amino acid is classified as an L-amino acid if the amino group is on the left side of the chiral carbon in Fischer projection.

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Excitatory neurotransmitters

Free amino acids that primarily function as excitatory neurotransmitters include glutamic acid and aspartic acid.

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Serine and glycine in lipids

Serine and glycine serve as precursors in the synthesis of phospholipids involved in lipid metabolism.

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Glutamic acid role

Glutamic acid is a primary excitatory neurotransmitter that promotes neuronal firing in the central nervous system.

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Tyrosine's precursors

Tyrosine is a precursor for the synthesis of key hormones such as thyroid hormones and catecholamines.

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Hormonal signal transmission

Tyrosine contributes by being converted into precursors for important hormones like catecholamines and thyroid hormones.

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Free amino acids for lipids

Serine and glycine are notably involved in the synthesis of lipids and their derivatives.

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tRNA transport

tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

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Primary active transport

Movement of molecules from low to high concentration using ATP energy.

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Codon definition

A sequence of three nucleotides that codes for an amino acid or a stop signal in protein synthesis.

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Hydrogen bonds in translation

Bonds formed between codon and anticodon during mRNA translation.

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Tertiary structure of proteins

The 3D shape formed by interactions between amino acid side chains.

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Role of mitogen-activated Protein Kinase (MAPK)

A serine-threonine kinase that transmits signals in pathways activated by Ras.

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Function of the kinetochore

A protein structure on chromosomes that connects them to spindle fibers during mitosis.

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Difference between Autosomes and Allosomes

Autosomes are non-sex chromosomes, while allosomes are sex chromosomes.

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Types of amino acids

20 standard amino acids are found in proteins, differing in side chains.

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Cholesterol's function in membranes

Modulates fluidity and stability of cell membranes.

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Function of lysosomes

Break down cellular waste and recycle macromolecules.

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Function of mitochondria

Generate ATP, the energy currency of the cell, through respiration.

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Role of serine and glycine

Precursors in lipid synthesis, influencing lipid metabolism.

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Glycogen

A polysaccharide that serves as a form of energy storage in animals.

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Role of ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis, translating mRNA into polypeptide chains.

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Urea cycle amino acids

Ornithine and citrulline serve as intermediates in the urea cycle.

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Cell signaling importance

The process by which cells communicate and respond to external signals affecting growth and behavior.

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Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic molecules

Hydrophilic molecules mix with water, while hydrophobic ones do not.

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Progression of cellular respiration

The sequence is Glycolysis → Krebs Cycle → Electron Transport Chain.

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Types of receptors

Ionotropic receptors respond rapidly to neurotransmitters, while metabotropic do so more slowly.

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Function of centrosomes

Organize microtubules and form the mitotic spindle during cell division.

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Peptide bond formation

A bond formed through a condensation reaction, producing water as a by-product.

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Degeneracy of the genetic code

An amino acid can be encoded by multiple codons.

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Signal transduction pathways

Processes by which cells respond to external signals through a cascade of reactions.

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Cell cycle checkpoints

Checkpoints ensure proper cell division by monitoring DNA integrity and chromosome attachment.

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Protein structure levels

Proteins have four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary, each adding complexity.

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Study Notes

Biology Exam Questions - Summary

  • Metaphase Chromosome Feature: Chromosome length is not a morphological feature. Other features, like banding pattern and centromere position, are morphological.

  • tRNA Transport: tRNA transports amino acids, not peptides or codons.

  • RNA Tertiary Structure: Interactions of arm stems with other arm stems, and binding of basic proteins or ions to neutralize RNA's negative charge are involved in tertiary structure formation. Creation of A-type helix and non-canonical pairs/triplets are not.

  • tRNA Pseudouridine Loop: The T-loop contains a site for tRNA binding to the ribosome. It also contains a D loop containing dihydrouridine.

  • Neurotransmitter Receptors: Ionotropic (ion-channel-coupled) receptors are designed for rapid response to neurotransmitters.

  • DNA Replication Irreversibility: Loss of PPi (pyrophosphate) when hydrolyzed to inorganic phosphate is the process that causes DNA replication to become irreversible.

  • Gene Expression Control: Combinatorial control uses a group of transcriptional regulators to express a gene, not a single regulator or genes in operons.

  • MAPK (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase): MAPK is a final serine-threonine kinase activated by Ras, resulting from dephosphorylation reactions by other kinases. Binding to GEF (guanine nucleotide exchange factor) proteins is involved in Ras activation.

  • Glycoprotein Component: Lipids, along with proteins, can compose glycoproteins.

  • Carbohydrates >10 Subunits: Polysaccharides are carbohydrates with more than 10 subunits.

  • HSCs Collection: HSCs (hematopoietic stem cells) are collected via apheresis by using antibodies that target CD34 surface proteins.

  • DNA Repair Process: The MGMT protein is involved in direct repair of DNA damage from the methyl group removal of guanine (O6).

  • Histone Protein Nucleosome Core: The H1 histone protein does not form part of the nucleosome core. Other histones that do are H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.

  • Mitotic Cyclin Concentration: Mitotic cyclin (cyclin B) concentration is highest during the M phase of the cell cycle.

  • Apoptosis Trigger: Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, occurs when a cell-death intracellular program is initiated, or during gametogenesis when the body is stressed.

  • Amino Acid Count in Human Proteins: Approximately 20 amino acids are found in human proteins (or 23, depending on the context.)

  • Secondary Protein Structure: The hydrogen bond interacting with NH and CO (i and i + 3) residues creates a secondary protein structure called an alpha-helix.

  • Chromosome Classification: Based on the length of chromosome arms: Telocentric, acrocentric, submetacentric and metacentric.

  • Interphase Phases: The interphase of the cell cycle includes G1, S, and G2 phases. All stages are before cell division.

  • Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER): Cutting the DNA strand on both sides of damage, enzyme removal of damaged base, and new DNA strand fragment synthesis by polymerase are steps involved in NER. Unraveling the double strand around damage is part of other repair processes.

  • Chromosomes: Non-sex chromosomes are called autosomes. Sex chromosomes are called allosomes.

  • Sister Chromosomes Separation Phase: Sister chromosomes separate during the anaphase phase of mitosis. Mitosis is the process of a cell dividing, and involves prometaphase, prophase, metaphase, and anaphase phases.

  • Smallest Living Unit: The smallest living unit is the cell.

  • Chromosome Occupancy During Interphase: Chromosomes occupy distinct areas within the interphase nucleus.

  • RNA Structure: Apical loops (hairpins) exist in RNA tertiary structure, not primary, secondary or quaternary.

  • Membrane Transport and Lysosome: Secondary active transport is a type of membrane transport associated with phagosome formation.

  • PCR Experiment Positive Control: The intent of positive control is to verify that the entire PCR experiment works, by using a known DNA sample.

  • DNA Structure: DNA is a double-stranded, right-handed helix with bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.

  • Enzyme Function of Lysosomes: Lysosomes function in breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.

  • Primary Role of Mitogens: Mitogens are extracellular molecules that stimulate cell proliferation.

  • Mitochondrial Function: Mitochondria generate ATP through cellular respiration.

  • PCR Annealing Temperature: The typical annealing temperature for PCR is between 50-65°C because DNA primers bind to the template DNA at this temperature.

  • Biological Membrane Structure: Biological membranes have a fluid bilayer structure composed predominantly of phospholipids and proteins.

  • DNA Composition: DNA consists of nucleotides containing a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, guanine, or cytosine).

  • Cell Parts and Components: The cytoplasm contains water, salts, organic molecules (including lipids, proteins, nucleotides)

  • Protein Structure Related to Disulfide Bridges: Proteins with disulfide bridges exhibit a tertiary structure, which is the third level of protein structure. The overall three-dimensional shape of the protein is determined by the arrangement of amino acids and interactions between them (e.g., disulfide bridges).

  • Nitrogenous Base Structure: Purines (double-ring) include adenine and guanine. Pyrimidines (single-ring) include cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

  • Genetic Code Degeneracy: The genetic code is degenerate: More than one codon can specify the same amino acid.

  • Amino Acids Containing a Thiol Group: Serine and Threonine contain a hydroxyl group ; Cysteine contains a thiol group (-SH).

  • Other Amino Acid Characteristics: (Refer to pages 19 for details)

  • Oxygen Role in Respiration: Oxygen is used in respiration as a final electron receptor in the electron transport chain.

  • Carbohydrate Classification: Monosaccharides have single sugar units; disaccharides have two sugar units; oligosaccharides have 3-10 sugar units; and polysaccharides have >10 sugar units.

  • Ribosomes Function: Cytosol ribosomes produce proteins that function in the cytosol, while other ribosomes produce proteins that function outside the cytoplasm.

  • Amyloplast Function: Amyloplasts primarily store starch.

  • Initiation of Translation: Methionine-tRNAinitiator (met-tRNA¡Met) initiates translation in eukaryotes.

  • DNA Polymerase and Primers: DNA polymerase requires a primer to initiate DNA synthesis because it can only add bases to an existing strand.

  • Tyrosine and Hormones: Tyrosine is a precursor to hormones like catecholamines and thyroid hormones.

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Biology Exam Questions PDF

Description

Test your knowledge on cell biology and genetics. Topics include chromosome morphology, translation, mitosis, lysosomes, heterochromatin, and orphan receptors. Assess your understanding of these fundamental concepts.

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