Celestial Mechanics and Planetary Science Quiz

Definition: Study of the motions of celestial objects under the influence of gravitational forces.
Key Laws:
- Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: Describes the gravitational attraction between masses.
- Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion:
  1. Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
  2. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
  3. The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
Applications: Predicting satellite orbits, spacecraft trajectories, and understanding the dynamics of multi-body systems.

Definition: Study of planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and the processes that govern their formation and evolution.
Planetary Bodies:
- Terrestrial Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars—rocky surfaces, few moons.
- Gas Giants: Jupiter, Saturn—massive, thick atmospheres, many moons.
- Ice Giants: Uranus, Neptune—similar to gas giants but with more ices.
Key Concepts:
- Formation: Accretion of dust and gas in protoplanetary disks.
- Atmospheres: Composed of gases, can support weather and climates.
- Geology: Surface processes like volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.

Stages of Evolution:
1. Nebula: Cloud of gas and dust where stars form.
2. Protostar: A star in the early stages of formation.
3. Main Sequence Star: Stable phase where hydrogen is fused into helium.
4. Red Giant/Supergiant: Star expands and cools after exhausting hydrogen.
5. End of Life:
  - Low-mass stars: Shed outer layers to form planetary nebulae; core becomes white dwarf.
  - High-mass stars: Explode in supernovae; core becomes neutron star or black hole.
Nucleosynthesis: Creation of new elements through nuclear fusion in stars.

Definition: Study of the universe's origin, evolution, structure, and eventual fate.
Key Concepts:
- Big Bang Theory: The universe began from a hot, dense state and has been expanding.
- Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation: Remnant radiation from the Big Bang, providing evidence for the theory.
- Dark Matter & Dark Energy: Unseen components influencing the universe's structure and expansion.
Fate of the Universe: Scenarios include continued expansion, eventual collapse (Big Crunch), or a steady state.

Telescopes:
- Optical: Use lenses/mirrors to observe visible light; includes refractors and reflectors.
- Radio: Detect radio waves emitted by celestial objects; useful for studying cosmic phenomena.
- Space Telescopes: Positioned outside Earth's atmosphere to avoid atmospheric distortion (e.g., Hubble, James Webb).
Spectroscopy: Analyzing light spectra to determine composition, temperature, motion, and distance of celestial bodies.
Photometry: Measuring the intensity of light from objects to study their brightness and variability over time.
Astrometry: Precise measurements of the positions and movements of celestial objects for understanding dynamics and gravitational influences.

Study of celestial objects' motions influenced by gravitational forces.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation quantifies gravitational attraction between two masses.
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion explain planetary movement:
- Orbits are elliptical with the Sun at one focus.
- Equal areas are swept out in equal times by a line connecting the planet to the Sun.
- The orbital period squared is proportional to the semi-major axis cubed.
Applications include satellite orbit prediction, spacecraft trajectory planning, and analyzing multi-body dynamics.

Focuses on the study of planets, moons, asteroids, and comets, including their formation and evolution.
Terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) have rocky surfaces and few moons.
Gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn) are massive with thick atmospheres and numerous moons.
Ice giants (Uranus, Neptune) share similarities with gas giants but contain more icy materials.
Planetary formation occurs through dust and gas accretion in protoplanetary disks.
Planetary atmospheres consist of gases capable of supporting weather and climates.
Geology encompasses surface processes such as volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.

Stars evolve through distinct stages:
- Nebula: A dense cloud of gas and dust where star formation begins.
- Protostar: An early-stage star forming from accumulating material.
- Main Sequence Star: Stable phase characterized by hydrogen fusion into helium.
- Red Giant/Supergiant: Stage where a star expands and cools after depleting hydrogen.
End-of-life scenarios:
- Low-mass stars shed layers to create planetary nebulae, leaving a white dwarf core.
- High-mass stars undergo supernova explosions, resulting in neutron stars or black holes.
Nucleosynthesis involves the creation of new elements via nuclear fusion within stars.

Examines the universe's origin, evolution, structure, and potential fate.
The Big Bang Theory posits that the universe originated from a hot, dense state and has been expanding since.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation provides evidence of the Big Bang as a remnant radiation.
Dark Matter and Dark Energy are invisible components that influence the universe's structure and expansion.
Possible fates of the universe include continued expansion, a Big Crunch collapse, or reaching a steady state.

Telescopes are essential tools for astronomical observation:
- Optical telescopes use lenses or mirrors to observe visible light (e.g., refractors and reflectors).
- Radio telescopes detect radio waves from celestial objects, aiding the study of cosmic phenomena.
- Space telescopes, like Hubble and James Webb, operate outside Earth's atmosphere to minimize distortion.
Spectroscopy involves analyzing light spectra to determine celestial bodies' composition, temperature, motion, and distance.
Photometry measures light intensity from objects to study brightness variations over time.
Astrometry entails precise measurements of celestial objects' positions and movements to analyze gravitational effects and dynamics.