Causes of the Scientific Revolution

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

• In the Middle Ages, natural philosophers relied on ancient authorities like Aristotle for scientific knowledge, rather than direct observation.
• Renaissance humanists' mastery of Greek and Latin provided access to previously unknown works by Archimedes and Plato.
• The writings revealed ancient thinkers who disagreed with Aristotle.
• Technical problems, such as calculating ship weight, spurred scientific activity.
• New inventions like the telescope and microscope enabled new scientific discoveries
• The printing press facilitated the quick and easy spread of new ideas.
• Mathematics was crucial to scientific advancements and was seen as key to understanding the universe.
• Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton were mathematicians who formed the foundation of the Scientific Revolution.

Scientific Breakthroughs

• Discoveries in astronomy, medicine, and chemistry led to a new conception of the universe.
• Ptolemy's geocentric system put Earth at the center of the universe, surrounded by concentric spheres containing heavenly bodies.
• The tenth sphere was the "prime mover", and beyond it was Heaven.
• Nicolaus Copernicus published "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" in 1543.
• Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model with the sun at the center and planets revolving around it.
• Johannes Kepler used astronomical data to formulate laws of planetary motion, confirming the sun as the center.
• Kepler's First Law stated that planets' orbits were elliptical, contradicting the Ptolemaic system's circular orbits.
• Galileo Galilei made observations using a telescope, discovering mountains on the moon, moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots.
• These discoveries suggested heavenly bodies were made of material substance like Earth, challenging the Ptolemaic view.
• Galileo's findings were published in "The Starry Messenger" in 1610, raising awareness of the new view of the universe.
• The Catholic Church ordered Galileo to abandon Copernican ideas because they threatened the Church's conception of the universe.
• Isaac Newton defined the three laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation in the Principia.
• The universal law of gravitation explains that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object.
• Newton's concept presented the universe as a regulated machine operating according to natural laws, influencing the modern worldview until Einstein.

Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

• Galen's teachings, based on animal dissection, dominated medicine in the Late Middle Ages but contained inaccuracies.
• Andreas Vesalius accurately described human anatomy through human dissection at the University of Padua.
• William Harvey demonstrated that the heart was the starting point for blood circulation, not the liver.
• Blaise Pascal's experiments with liquids under pressure led to Pascal's Law and the development of tools like the syringe.
• Robert Boyle's experiments on gases led to Boyle's Law, stating that gas volume varies with pressure.
• Antoine Lavoisier created a system for naming chemical elements and is considered the founder of modern chemistry.

Women's Contributions

• Margaret Cavendish wrote on scientific matters, including "Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy", and criticized the belief that humans were masters of nature through science.
• Cavendish published under her name, but many intellectuals did not take her work seriously.
• Maria Winkelmann, trained in astronomy, discovered a comet.
• Winkelmann was denied a position at the Berlin Academy because she was a woman without a university degree.
• Between 1650 and 1710, women made up 14 percent of all German astronomers.

Philosophy and Reason

• The Scientific Revolution's new conceptions of the universe influenced the Western view of humankind.
• René Descartes emphasized the importance of reason, accepting only what his own mind deemed true.
• Descartes' principle of separating mind and matter allowed scientists to view matter as inert and investigate it independently.
• Descartes is known as the father of modern rationalism, emphasizing reason as the chief source of knowledge.
• Francis Bacon believed scientists should use inductive reasoning and empiricism.
• Empiricism states that knowledge is achieved through observation.
• Scientists should start with detailed facts and proceed toward general principles, forming hypotheses and testing them through systematic observation and experiments.
• Bacon wanted science to benefit industry, agriculture, and trade, viewing control and domination of nature.

Ideas of the Philosophes

• The Enlightenment was an eighteenth-century philosophical movement emphasizing reason and the scientific method to improve society.
• John Locke's idea of tabula rasa suggested that people are molded by experiences, influencing the belief that changing environments could create a better society.
• Isaac Newton's concept of a "world machine" operating according to natural laws inspired Enlightenment thinkers.
• Philosophes were intellectuals who sought to reform society using reason and rational criticism.
• Montesquieu studied governments in "The Spirit of the Laws", advocating for a separation of powers with checks and balances for freedom and security.
• Voltaire criticized Christianity and championed religious toleration and deism.
• Deism viewed the universe as a clock created by a mechanic (God) and allowed to run without interference.
• Denis Diderot's "Encyclopedia" aimed to "change the general way of thinking" by attacking religious superstition, supporting toleration, and calling for reforms.
• The spread of the Encyclopedia helped proliferate Enlightenment ideas.
• The social sciences developed from applying Newton's methods to discover natural laws governing human life.
• The Physiocrats and Adam Smith advocated laissez-faire economics, arguing that individuals pursuing self-interest would benefit society.
• Adam Smith outlined three basic roles for government: protecting society, defending citizens from injustice, and maintaining public works.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that people were enslaved by government.
• Rousseau presented the concept of the social contract.
• Under the social contract society would be governed by its general will.
• Rousseau believed emotions were vital to human development.
• Mary Wollstonecraft advocated for equal rights for women in education, economics, and politics.

The Growth of Reading

• Enlightenment ideas spread to the literate elite through publishing and reading.
• Novels, magazines, and newspapers became popular among the middle classes, including women and urban artisans.
• Coffeehouses and salons served as gathering places for exchanging ideas.
• Salons, hosted by wealthy women, influenced political opinion and spread Enlightenment ideas.

Religion in the Enlightenment

• Many Europeans remained Christian, seeking deeper personal devotion.
• Methodism, founded by John Wesley, emphasized personal salvation and led to social reforms.

Enlightenment and the Arts

• Enlightenment ideas influenced society and culture.
• European rulers built grand residences modeled on the Italian baroque style.
• Balthasar Neumann's architecture blended secular and spiritual elements.
• Rococo art emphasized grace, charm, and pleasure, reflecting the Enlightenment culture.
• Antoine Watteau's paintings depicted upper-class pleasure but suggested the fragility of life.
• Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed classical music rather than baroque music.