Causes of European Expansion

Causes of European Expansion

• European adoption of technologies like the compass, astrolabe, and lateen sail facilitated maritime navigation and exploration.
• European innovation in shipbuilding, particularly the Portuguese Caravel, enabled better exploration and naval dominance in the Indian Ocean.
• Improvements in understanding regional wind patterns in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were crucial for navigation.
• European monarchs gained power at the expense of nobility, leading to greater state control over economic decisions.
• This power shift incentivized state-sponsored exploration for alternative trade routes to Asia, bypassing land-based empires.
• Mercantilism, an economic system emphasizing a favorable balance of trade, motivated states to maximize exports and minimize imports.
• Joint-Stock Companies, limited liability businesses funded by private investors with state charters, were instrumental in overseas colonization.

Rise of Maritime Empires

• Portugal:
  • Led by Prince Henry the Navigator, they initiated exploration beyond the Atlantic coast of Africa.
  • Established a trading post empire with "factories" along the coast of Africa and the Indian Ocean.
  • Their superior ships, like the Caravel, allowed them to control the Indian Ocean trade.
• Spain:
  • Sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas, establishing a large colonial empire.
  • Colonization led to the opening of the transatlantic trade, which eventually surpassed the Indian Ocean trade in profitability.
  • Established a presence in the Philippines, using methods similar to their American colonies, such as tribute collection and forced labor.
• France:
  • Sponsored westward expeditions to find the Northwest Passage to Asia, ultimately unsuccessful, but established a presence in Canada.
  • Focused on the fur trade with Indigenous peoples in the Americas.
• England:
  • Queen Elizabeth I supported exploration following Spain's defeat.
  • Established their first colony in Roanoke, Virginia.
  • Founded Jamestown, Virginia, marking the beginning of their successful American colonial expansion.
  • Focused on establishing trading posts in India, later transitioning to colonial rule.
• Dutch:
  • Gained independence from Spain, becoming the most wealthy state in Europe.
  • Founded the Dutch East India Company (VOC), which dominated the Indian Ocean trade.
  • Colonized parts of the Americas, but their dominance primarily stemmed from their control of the spice trade and strategic positions in the Indian Ocean.

The Colombian Exchange

• Transfer of Diseases:
  • Europeans introduced deadly diseases like smallpox, measles, and malaria to the Americas.
  • These diseases devastated Indigenous populations due to their lack of immunity, contributing to a significant population decline, known as the "Great Dying."
• Transfer of Crops:
  • Europeans brought wheat, olives, grapes, and other staples to the Americas, while Indigenous populations incorporated rice, bananas, and sugar into their diets.
  • American crops like maize and potatoes were introduced to Europe, Africa, and Asia, leading to population growth and improved diets.
  • African crops, such as okra and rice, were introduced to the Americas by slaves.
  • The demand for American crops led to cash cropping on plantations, particularly sugar cane, utilizing enslaved labor.
• Transfer of Animals:
  • Europeans introduced pigs, sheep, cattle, and horses to the Americas.
  • Horses significantly impacted Indigenous Plains peoples, enhancing their hunting abilities and food production.

Resistance to European Expansion

• Tokugawa Japan:
  • At first, the Shogun welcomed trade with European powers, particularly for access to gunpowder.
  • Conversion of some Japanese to Christianity led to concerns about the threat to national unity.
  • The Shogun expelled missionaries and suppressed Christianity, resulting in near isolation from European commerce.
• The Fronde (France):
  • Rebellions sparked by increased taxation to finance Imperial expansion.
  • French nobility, whose power was threatened by the monarchy, led peasant revolts against the king's authority.
  • These rebellions were eventually crushed, further consolidating the monarchy's power.
• Maroon Societies in the Caribbean and Brazil:
  • Communities formed by runaway slaves.
  • Resistance against colonial authorities, with examples like Queen Nanny's rebellion in Jamaica, forcing colonial forces to recognize their freedom via treaty.

Impact of Maritime Empires

• Global Economic Linkages:
  • Maritime trading networks facilitated the growth of some African states, integrating them into the global economy.
• Rise of European Power:
  • European states significantly expanded their wealth and political influence on a global scale.

Expansion of Trade Networks

• The Asante Empire in West Africa prospered due to its strategic location and the trade of desired goods like gold, ivory, and enslaved people.
• The Kingdom of Kongo in Southern Africa forged strong diplomatic ties with the Portuguese, trading gold, copper, and enslaved people.
• The King of Kongo converted to Christianity to facilitate trade with European Christian states.
• The Indian Ocean Trade Network continued to thrive despite increased participation by European states.
• European entry into the network increased profits for both European and pre-existing Asian merchants.
• The Mughal Empire benefited from Gujarati merchants ongoing participation in the Indian Ocean Trade Network.
• Overland trade routes, like the Silk Road, remained largely controlled by Asian powers, such as the Ming Dynasty and the Ottoman Empire.
• Increased demand for goods, stimulated by trade, led to increased production by peasants and artisans in various regions.

Atlantic System

• The opening of the Atlantic system of trade marked a significant departure, with significant movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.
• Sugarcane became a key commodity, cultivated on colonial plantations in the Caribbean and exported to Europe.
• Silver from the Americas, mined by Spanish conquistadors, spurred the commercialization of the Chinese economy and contributed to the growth of the Atlantic System.
• Coerced labor, including indigenous labor, indentured servitude, and African slavery, became vital to the Atlantic System.
• African slavery played a crucial role in the Imperial labor force in the Americas.
• The global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by states to joint-stock companies sustained the Atlantic System.

Labor Systems in the Americas

• European economies in the Americas were primarily based on agriculture and mining.
• The Mita System, a labor obligation system used by the Inca, was adopted by the Spanish for silver mining.
• The Spanish Mita System differed from the Inca version, focusing on private mining for the benefit of individuals and the state.
• Chattel Slavery, a form of slavery characterized by total ownership and hereditary aspects, became prevalent in the Americas.
• Chattel Slavery was race-based, significantly impacting demographics in African states as men were disproportionately sold into slavery.
• The transatlantic slave trade was expansive, transporting over 12.5 million Africans to the Americas over 350 years.
• Indentured Servitude involved a contract that bound laborers to a particular work for a set period, with freedom at the end.
• The Encomienda System, utilized by the Spanish, allocated indigenous Americans to Spanish settlers, forcing them to labor in exchange for food and protection.
• The Hacienda System, a form of forced labor, emerged as the Encomienda system declined, forcing indigenous laborers to work on large plantations.

Changing Belief Systems

• Catholic missionaries, particularly Jesuits, were sent to the Americas to convert indigenous populations.
• Indigenous groups often outwardly adopted Christianity while privately maintaining their own religious beliefs.
• The merging of Christian beliefs and practices with indigenous beliefs led to syncretism, exemplified by the emergence of Vodun, a blended faith in the Americas.

Social Hierarchies

• Spain and Portugal's Treatment of Jews:
  • Both countries expelled Jews, including those who had converted to Christianity, due to religious pressures.
  • Jews found refuge in the Ottoman Empire, which extended tolerance towards them.
• The Rise of New Political Elites:
  • The Spanish Casta System, based on race and ancestry, organized colonial society into ranks.
  • The Manchurian Qing Dynasty in China reserved top bureaucratic positions for Manchurian people, excluding ethnic Han Chinese.
• Struggles of Existing Elites:
  • The Russian Boyars, an aristocratic class, lost power to Peter the Great, who advocated for direct service to the state.