Causes and Characteristics of Revolutions

• Revolutions have four characteristics:
• Dissident elites with some power who oppose the authorities
• Mass frustrations
• Shared motivation
• State crisis stemming from war or a movement

Causes of Revolutionary Ideas

• Enlightenment ideals, growth of literacy, and laissez-faire economics contributed to revolutionary ideas in Europe and the Americas.

American Revolution

• The American Revolution inspired the French Revolution.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man was based on the American Declaration of Independence.
• It demonstrated popular sovereignty.

French Revolution

• The long-term causes were absolutism, the Three Estates system, poor harvests, and Enlightenment influence.
• The short-term causes were bankruptcy (due to royal spending, the privileged class's refusal to pay taxes, and poor harvest) and the Great Fear (famine).
• Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to address economic problems.
• The King needed to raise taxes on the wealthy.
• Each estate had one vote.
• The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly.
• The Tennis Court Oath was when the Third Estate vowed to create a constitution.
• The Storming of the Bastille was a pivotal event, symbolizing the downfall of the monarchy.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man advocated for protected property, freedom of speech, trial by jury, and freedom of religion.

Reign of Terror Groups

• Two main groups emerged:
• The Girodins favored a moderate approach and were primarily upper-middle class but were overthrown and executed by the Jacobins.
• The Montagnards (Jacobins) were radical revolutionaries led by Maximilien Robespierre.
• They used the "Law of Suspects" to execute perceived enemies and anyone deemed a threat to the revolutionary cause.
• Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power after the Reign of Terror.
• He controlled and built alliances with numerous states and kingdoms.

Haitian Revolution

• Toussaint Louverture led the Haitian Revolution, which differed as it focused on ending slavery rather than just gaining independence unlike the American Revolution.
• Freedom in Haiti meant the end of slavery, regaining lives, and equal rights.
• Events in France in 1793 had a significant impact on Haiti.
• The slave revolution sparked rebellions among slaves in other nations who feared similar revolts.

Revolutions in Spanish and Portuguese America

• Dom Pedro of Portugal declared Brazil an independent state and established the Empire of Brazil.
• The Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808 created a crisis and power vacuum in the Spanish Empire when Napoleon forced the Spanish king to abdicate.
• Mexico's independence in 1821 involved violent uprisings and ended with Agustín de Inturbide declaring independence while Brazil's independence was relatively peaceful, led by Dom Pedro I.
• Simón Bolívar led independence movements in northern South America.
• José de San Martín led independence movements in southern South America.
• Post-independence, Spanish America faced fragmented nations, political instability, and struggles between liberal and conservative governance.

Industrial Revolution

• The Industrial Revolution led to:
• Economic growth via factories and mass production, but also widened the gap between the wealthy and working class.
• Urbanization, poor living conditions, and a new working class, leading to social unrest and calls for labor reform.
• Technological innovation in industries, transportation, and communication, leading to modern infrastructure and global trade.
• Pollution, deforestation, and resource depletion leading to environmental degradation and health hazards.
• Political movements advocating for workers' rights, democracy, and social welfare policies.

Opium Wars

• Britain's economics were depleted because they wanted Chinese goods but China didn't want anything from Britain, causing a trade imbalance.
• The First Opium War began with China's crackdown on opium, leading to British military intervention after Britain saw this as an attack on free trade.
• The Treaty of Nanking was an unequal treaty that favored Britain, ceding Hong Kong, opening treaty ports, granting extraterritorial rights, and imposing a large indemnity on China.
• The wars marked the start of the "Century of Humiliation," where foreign powers exploited China.

Abolishment of the Slave Trade

• The British Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act to make the slave trade illegal.
• Abolitionists were motivated by Christian morals, testimonies, and Enlightenment ideas.
• The Royal Navy enforced the act by patrolling the coast and intercepting slave ships.
• African kingdoms experienced economic decline due to the ban on trading people.

Britain’s Takeover of India

• Britain changed India from a manufacturing to raw material exporting economy, put them through an industrial revolution, and introduced English schools.

Revolutions share common characteristics such as dissident elites, mass frustrations, shared motivation, and state crisis. Enlightenment ideals and economic shifts fueled revolutionary ideas in Europe and the Americas. The American Revolution influenced the French Revolution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man.