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Questions and Answers
What is a characteristic sign of unstable angina?
What is a characteristic sign of unstable angina?
When does variant angina typically occur?
When does variant angina typically occur?
What is microvascular angina associated with?
What is microvascular angina associated with?
What role does the sinoatrial node (SA node) serve in the heart?
What role does the sinoatrial node (SA node) serve in the heart?
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What is electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) primarily used for?
What is electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) primarily used for?
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What does the P-QRS-T pattern represent in cardiac activity?
What does the P-QRS-T pattern represent in cardiac activity?
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Which phase of cardiac cell activity features rapid depolarisation due to Na inflow?
Which phase of cardiac cell activity features rapid depolarisation due to Na inflow?
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What is the primary characteristic of Phase 2 in cardiac cells?
What is the primary characteristic of Phase 2 in cardiac cells?
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During which phase does the outward K current increase, leading to repolarisation?
During which phase does the outward K current increase, leading to repolarisation?
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What does the term 'arrhythmia' refer to in terms of heart function?
What does the term 'arrhythmia' refer to in terms of heart function?
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What is the age range most commonly associated with the incidence of hypertension?
What is the age range most commonly associated with the incidence of hypertension?
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Which of the following is NOT a common consequence of untreated elevated hypertension?
Which of the following is NOT a common consequence of untreated elevated hypertension?
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Primary hypertension constitutes what percentage of all cases of systemic hypertension?
Primary hypertension constitutes what percentage of all cases of systemic hypertension?
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What is a neurological finding associated with severe elevation in blood pressure?
What is a neurological finding associated with severe elevation in blood pressure?
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What contributes to the development of peripheral edema in patients with hypertension?
What contributes to the development of peripheral edema in patients with hypertension?
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Which of the following describes secondary hypertension?
Which of the following describes secondary hypertension?
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Which equation correctly represents blood pressure?
Which equation correctly represents blood pressure?
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What physiological change can increase blood pressure through the sympathetic nervous system?
What physiological change can increase blood pressure through the sympathetic nervous system?
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What are the two upper chambers of the heart called?
What are the two upper chambers of the heart called?
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Which valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle?
Which valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle?
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What term describes the load on the cardiac muscle at the end of diastole?
What term describes the load on the cardiac muscle at the end of diastole?
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What is considered high systolic blood pressure?
What is considered high systolic blood pressure?
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Which age group has a higher incidence of hypertension?
Which age group has a higher incidence of hypertension?
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What does cardiac output refer to?
What does cardiac output refer to?
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What is the normal blood pressure reading for adults?
What is the normal blood pressure reading for adults?
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What does positive chronotropy refer to?
What does positive chronotropy refer to?
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What is the rhythm characteristic of atrial flutter?
What is the rhythm characteristic of atrial flutter?
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What occurs in bundle branch block?
What occurs in bundle branch block?
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What are premature atrial contractions (PACs)?
What are premature atrial contractions (PACs)?
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What is Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome characterized by?
What is Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome characterized by?
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In sick sinus syndrome, how does the heart rate typically behave?
In sick sinus syndrome, how does the heart rate typically behave?
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What is the main effect of premature ventricular contractions (PVCs)?
What is the main effect of premature ventricular contractions (PVCs)?
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What is a typical ratio of atrial beats to ventricular beats in atrial flutter?
What is a typical ratio of atrial beats to ventricular beats in atrial flutter?
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What primarily changes in the heart rhythm during sick sinus syndrome?
What primarily changes in the heart rhythm during sick sinus syndrome?
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What typically indicates the location of the electrophysiologic abnormality in arrhythmias?
What typically indicates the location of the electrophysiologic abnormality in arrhythmias?
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What is classified as bradycardia in adults?
What is classified as bradycardia in adults?
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What condition allows impulses to circulate continuously in the heart, resulting in re-entry arrhythmias?
What condition allows impulses to circulate continuously in the heart, resulting in re-entry arrhythmias?
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What is a common cause of ectopic pulses in the heart?
What is a common cause of ectopic pulses in the heart?
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Which term describes a heart rate that is slower than normal?
Which term describes a heart rate that is slower than normal?
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What is the result of abnormal impulse conduction in the heart?
What is the result of abnormal impulse conduction in the heart?
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What type of pulse originates from non-pacemaker cells due to an abnormal action potential?
What type of pulse originates from non-pacemaker cells due to an abnormal action potential?
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What can lead to damage of nodal or conducting tissue in the heart?
What can lead to damage of nodal or conducting tissue in the heart?
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Study Notes
Cardiovascular System
- Heart Structure: The heart has four chambers—two atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower).
- Heart Valves: Four valves regulate blood flow: Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral, and Aortic. These valves permit blood flow in only one direction.
- Preload: The load on the cardiac muscle at the end of diastole (relaxation).
- Afterload: The load on the cardiac muscle at the end of systole (contraction).
- Cardiac Output: The amount of blood pumped from the heart per unit time.
- Stroke Volume: The volume of blood ejected from the heart in each beat.
- Heart Rate: The number of heart beats per unit time.
- Positive Inotropy: Increased heart force of contraction.
- Positive Chronotropy: Increased heart rate.
- Positive Dromotropy: Increased conduction velocity between the atria and ventricle.
- Blood Pressure: Systolic (140 mmHg) and diastolic readings (90 mmHg) are considered high. Readings over 160/100 mmHg are Stage 2 hypertension. Normal is below 120/80 mmHg.
Hypertension
- Definition: Elevated blood pressure to a degree that perfuses tissues and organs inadequately.
- Incidence: High incidence (60-70%) in individuals older than 60 years.
- Associated Diseases: Hypertension can cause complications like myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, retinal damage, stroke, headache, neurological symptoms, and kidney disease.
A-Hypertension
- Elevated Blood Pressure: High blood pressure is typically caused by age, but can be exacerbated by disorders like renal disease or adrenal hyper-function.
- Classifications: Hypertension is classified into primary (essential), accounting for >95% of Hypertension cases, or secondary, which has an underlying cause.
- Consequence: Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and vascular resistance. Increased cardiac output, blood viscosity or reduced vascular resistance all elevate blood pressure.
Heart Failure
- Definition: Inability of the heart to supply sufficient blood flow to meet the body's needs.
- Types: Left-sided (pulmonary congestion) or right-sided (systemic congestion).
- Causes: Ischemic heart disease, cigarette smoking, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and valvular heart disease.
- Progression: Reduced contractility, reduced stroke volume, reduced spare capacity, increased heart rate.
Angina Pectoris
- Definition: Severe chest pain due to reduced blood and oxygen supply to heart muscle.
- Types: Stable (effort-related), Unstable, Variant (Prinzmetal's), or Microvascular.
- Symptoms: Stable angina occurs with exertion or physical stress, while unstable is unpredictable.
Arrhythmias
- Definition: Abnormal heart rhythms from abnormal impulse formation or conduction problems in the heart's electrical system.
- Types: Bradycardia, Tachycardia (Supraventricular, Sinus, Ventricular), Complete Heart Block, Sick Sinus syndrome, Torsades de Pointes, Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome.
Other Cardiovascular Conditions
- Atrial Fibrillation: Irregular heartbeat in the atria, where many portions of the atria emit uncoordinated electrical signals. May lead to reduced blood output, which can be problematic if untreated.
- Atrial Flutter: Similar to fibrillation, but the electrical activity in the atria is regular, not irregular.
- Bundle Branch Block: Electrical impulses are delayed in one or both branches in the heart's conducting system, resulting in a slower contraction in one ventricle as compared to the other.
- Premature Atrial Contractions (PACs): Extra beats that originate from the atria instead of the sinoatrial (SA) node.
- Premature Ventricular Contractions (PVCs): Extra beats that originate from the ventricles instead of the sinoatrial (SA) node.
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Description
Explore the essential components of the cardiovascular system, including the heart's structure, valves, and key concepts like preload, afterload, and cardiac output. This quiz will assess your understanding of how these elements work together to maintain blood circulation and blood pressure. Dive in to test your knowledge!
