Cardiac Physiology and ECG Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What physiological event is represented by the 'Lubb' sound (S1) in the cardiac cycle?

  • Closure of the semilunar valves (Aortic and Pulmonic).
  • Opening of the semilunar valves (Aortic and Pulmonic).
  • Closure of the atrioventricular (AV) valves (Mitral and Tricuspid). (correct)
  • Opening of the atrioventricular (AV) valves (Mitral and Tricuspid).

    • During which phase of the cardiac cycle does the 'Dupp' sound (S2) occur?

  • Beginning of systole.
  • Mid-diastole.
  • End of diastole.
  • End of systole/beginning of diastole. (correct)

    • What is the primary function of the sinoatrial (SA) node?

  • To serve as the heart's pacemaker, initiating sinus rhythm. (correct)
  • To conduct electrical impulses from the AV node to the Purkinje fibers.
  • To delay the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles.
  • To facilitate the repolarization of the ventricles.

    • What is the role of the atrioventricular (AV) node in the cardiac conduction system?

    <p>To delay the transmission of electrical impulses, allowing for complete atrial contraction. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the QRS complex represent on an electrocardiogram (ECG)?

    <p>Ventricular depolarization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the ECG tracing indicates ventricular repolarization?

    <p>T wave (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain houses the cardiac control center, which regulates heart rate and force of contraction?

    <p>Medulla oblongata (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation on heart rate?

    <p>Tachycardia (increased heart rate) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a typical cause of cardiac dysrhythmias?

    <p>Hyperglycemia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A patient experiencing alternating episodes of bradycardia and tachycardia is most likely suffering from which condition?

    <p>Sick sinus syndrome (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Following a myocardial infarction, what is the rationale for initiating cardiac rehabilitation?

    <p>To aid in the patient's recovery and improve cardiovascular health. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a potential complication of myocardial infarction that involves a blood clot?

    <p>Thromboembolism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical atrial heart rate range in atrial flutter?

    <p>160 to 350 beats/min (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might oxygen therapy be administered to a patient experiencing a myocardial infarction?

    <p>To reduce cardiac demand (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes premature atrial contractions (PACs)?

    <p>Extra contractions originating from irritable atrial tissue. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary causative agent of bronchiolitis?

    <p>Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A patient presents with a 'strawberry' tongue, fever, and sore throat. Which condition is most likely?

    <p>Scarlet Fever (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a typical sign or symptom associated with bronchiolitis?

    <p>Wheezing and dyspnea (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lobar pneumonia is often caused by which bacterial species?

    <p>Streptococcus pneumoniae (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT utilized in the classification of pneumonia?

    <p>Patient age (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A patient has pneumonia acquired in the hospital. Which is the most likely causative agent?

    <p>Klebsiella pneumoniae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the standard treatment for Scarlet Fever?

    <p>Antibiotics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following infections is transmitted via oral droplets?

    <p>Bronchiolitis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process encourages fluid flow away from a damaged area?

    <p>Vasodilation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of tissue regeneration as a form of healing?

    <p>Damaged tissue is replaced with identical, functional cells. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary distinction between exotoxins and endotoxins?

    <p>Exotoxins are typically produced by gram-positive bacteria and diffuse through body fluids, while endotoxins are released from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria upon death. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which healing process results in a loss of function?

    <p>Replacement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics differentiates bacteria from viruses?

    <p>The presence of both RNA and DNA. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of pili (fimbriae) in bacteria?

    <p>Assisting with attachment to surfaces and transferring DNA to other bacteria. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of wound healing do fibroblasts play a critical role?

    <p>Proliferative Phase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A bacterium is stained purple using crystal violet during a Gram stain. What can you conclude about its cell wall structure?

    <p>It has a thick peptidoglycan layer and no outer membrane. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor consistently delays wound healing?

    <p>Circulatory problems (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary significance of bacterial spores?

    <p>They represent a dormant form of the bacterium, highly resistant to adverse conditions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What classifies a microorganism as nonpathogenic?

    <p>It usually does not cause disease unless conditions change (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following pathogens is the smallest?

    <p>Viruses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In latent viral infections, what is the state of the virus within the host?

    <p>The virus is dormant, nonreplicating, but its genome is integrated into the host cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a unique characteristic of viruses that distinguishes them from other types of microorganisms?

    <p>They lack an organized cellular structure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure protects bacteria and gives the bacteria shape?

    <p>Rigid cell wall (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bacterial structure provides motility?

    <p>Flagellae (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the MOST common causative organism of laryngotracheobronchitis (croup) in children?

    <p>Parainfluenza viruses and adenoviruses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A child presents with a rapid onset of fever, sore throat, tripod position, drooling, and stridor. Which upper respiratory tract infection is MOST likely?

    <p>Epiglottitis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the MOST appropriate initial treatment approach for a patient diagnosed with influenza, without signs of secondary bacterial infection?

    <p>Symptomatic and supportive care (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A patient is diagnosed with sinusitis. What is the MOST likely causative agent and treatment?

    <p>Bacterial infection; treated with antibiotics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following interventions is the MOST effective method of preventing the spread of influenza within a community?

    <p>Respiratory hygiene and vaccination (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant characteristic of influenza A viruses that contributes to the need for annual vaccination?

    <p>They constantly mutate. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern regarding a mild case of influenza?

    <p>It may be complicated by secondary bacterial pneumonia. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A 5-year-old presents with a bark-like cough. Which condition is MOST likely suspected?

    <p>Croup (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    S1 Heart Sound

    Closure of AV valves; marks beginning of systole.

    S2 Heart Sound

    Closure of semilunar valves; marks end of systole/start of diastole.

    SA Node

    Sinoatrial node; the pacemaker of the heart.

    AV Node

    Atrioventricular node; delays electrical impulse from atria to ventricles.

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    P Wave

    Represents depolarization of atria in an ECG.

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    QRS Wave

    Represents depolarization of ventricles in an ECG.

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    T Wave

    Represents repolarization of ventricles in an ECG.

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    Baroreceptors

    Sensors located in arteries that detect blood pressure changes.

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    Purulent Exudate

    A thick fluid that is a sign of infection, usually containing pus.

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    Upper Respiratory Infection (URI)

    Any infection of the upper respiratory tract, including the common cold.

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    Croup

    Common viral infection in children, causing cough and stridor, often due to parainfluenza viruses.

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    Epiglottitis

    Acute infection usually caused by Haemophilus influenzae B, leading to swelling of the epiglottis.

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    Sinusitis

    Inflammation of the sinus cavities, often bacterial, requiring analgesics and sometimes antibiotics.

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    Influenza Treatment

    Supportive care is primary; antiviral drugs help reduce symptoms and duration.

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    Antiviral Drugs

    Medications that reduce the severity and duration of a viral infection.

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    Influenza Prevention

    Includes vaccination and practicing respiratory hygiene to prevent infection spread.

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    Virus Structure

    Viruses have a protein coat that surrounds RNA or DNA, not both.

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    Active Viral Infection

    When a virus replicates in a host cell, causing disease symptoms.

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    Latent Viral Infection

    Viruses that stay dormant in cells without replicating until certain conditions activate them.

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    Bacteria Characteristics

    Single-celled organisms classified as prokaryotes, no nucleus, can survive without a host.

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    Bacterial Cell Wall

    Rigid outer layer that protects bacteria and maintains their shape.

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    Gram-positive Bacteria

    Bacteria that retain the crystal violet stain, appearing purple under a microscope.

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    Exotoxins

    Toxins released by gram-positive bacteria, causing illness through body fluids.

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    Endotoxins

    Toxins released by dying gram-negative bacteria, can lead to serious effects like septic shock.

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    Tissue Repair

    The process of healing that can involve regeneration or replacement of damaged tissue.

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    Types of Healing

    Healing can occur as resolution, regeneration, or replacement based on tissue damage severity.

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    Resolution

    Healing with minimal tissue damage where cells recover and function returns to normal.

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    Regeneration

    Damaged tissue is replaced with identical cells through mitosis, restoring function usually.

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    Replacement

    Occurs when damage is extensive, replacing lost tissue with scar tissue, leading to function loss.

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    Phases of Wound Healing

    Healing includes phases: Hemostasis, Inflammation, Proliferative, and Remodeling.

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    Factors Affecting Healing

    Youth, nutrition, hemoglobin, and circulation promote healing; age and diseases delay it.

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    Common Pathogens

    Microorganisms that cause disease, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi.

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    Myocardial Infarction Complications

    List of complications from a heart attack, including CVA, heart failure, and shock.

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    Thromboembolism

    A blockage caused by a blood clot that travels to the brain, causing a stroke.

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    Congestive Heart Failure

    A condition where the heart can't pump enough blood to meet the body's needs.

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    Dysrhythmias

    Abnormal heart rhythms that can affect the heart's efficiency.

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    Oxygen Therapy

    Supplemental oxygen provided to patients to improve oxygen levels during cardiac issues.

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    Bradycardia

    A condition where the heart rate is slower than normal.

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    Atrial Flutter

    A type of abnormal fast heart rhythm, with rates between 160 to 350 beats/min.

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    Sick Sinus Syndrome

    A condition marked by alternating slow and fast heart rates, causing issues in heart pacing.

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    Scarlet Fever

    An infection caused by group A β-hemolytic Streptococcus (S.pyogenes) characterized by fever, sore throat, and a ‘strawberry’ tongue.

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    Symptoms of Scarlet Fever

    Includes fever, sore throat, chills, vomiting, abdominal pain, malaise, and a typical 'strawberry' tongue.

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    Bronchiolitis

    Lower respiratory infection caused by the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), leading to inflammation in small bronchi and bronchioles.

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    Signs of Bronchiolitis

    Wheezing, dyspnea, rapid shallow breathing, cough, rales, chest retractions, fever, malaise.

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    Pneumonia Classification

    Classified by causative agent (viral, bacterial, fungal), anatomical location, pathophysiological changes, and epidemiological data.

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    Types of Pneumonia

    Includes lobar pneumonia, which is localized in one or more lobes, often bacterial and community-acquired.

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    Lobar Pneumonia

    Bacterial pneumonia typically affecting healthy young adults, often caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.

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    Treatment of Scarlet Fever

    Primarily treated with antibiotics to eradicate the infection caused by Streptococcus.

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    Study Notes

    Cardiovascular System Disorders

    • The cardiovascular system is composed of vessels, fluid, and a pump (the heart)
    • The heart is a muscular pump that contracts and pumps blood simultaneously into two loops of blood vessels: pulmonary and systemic circulation.
    • The heart delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues, carries waste from cellular metabolism to excretory organs, circulates electrolytes and hormones, and transports immune substances. It also helps regulate body temperature.
    • The heart moves deoxygenated blood from the venous system to the right heart and then into pulmonary circulation, and oxygenated blood from the pulmonary circulation through the left heart and into the arterial system.
    • The heart has four chambers and four valves: tricuspid, mitral (bicuspid), pulmonic, and aortic.
    • The heart's function is to pump blood throughout the body.
    • The heart uses a four-stage process called the cardiac cycle for pumping: Diastole; Semilunar valves are shut, ventricles relax, and fill. AV valves open. Systole; Pressure mounts, AV valves shut (S1) to prevent backflow, and ventricles contract. The heart sound "lubb-dupp" is from the closing of the valves during systole and diastole.
    • The conduction pathway of the heart consists of specialized cells that transmit electrical impulses, causing the heart to contract rhythmically. (Sinoatrial (SA) node, Atrioventricular (AV) Node, AV Bundle (bundle of His), Right and left branches, Purkinje fibers, and Terminal fibers).
    • The electrochemical activity of the heart is measured by an EKG/ECG. (P wave - depolarization of the atria; QRS wave - depolarization of the ventricles; T wave - repolarization of the ventricles).
    • The heart is controlled by the cardiac control center in the medulla oblongata. Baroreceptors in the aorta and internal carotid arteries and the sympathetic/parasympathetic nerves control the heart rate and the force of its contractions.
    • Cardiac output (CO) = stroke volume (SV) x heart rate (HR). Preload is the amount of blood delivered to the heart by venous return, and afterload is the force required to eject blood from the ventricles, determined by the peripheral resistance in arteries. Blood pressure (BP) = Cardiac output (CO) x Peripheral resistance (PR).
    • Increased heart rate is caused by factors such as increased thyroid hormones, epinephrine, body temperature increase / infection, increased environmental temperature (esp. high humidity), exertion or exercise, smoking, stress response, and pregnancy. Pain also increase heart rate.
    • Blood pressure is regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system and by hormones.
    • The vascular system is composed of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
    • The arterial system has thick walls with elastic fibers—stretching during systole, recoiling during diastole. Arterioles act as control valves releasing blood into the capillaries.
    • Capillaries are microscopic vessels connecting arterial and venous segments. Fluids, electrolytes, and gases move through their pores via diffusion, filtration, and pinocytosis. Fluid exchange is controlled by hydrostatic and osmotic pressures.
    • Venules and veins are thin-walled and distensible. Valves prevent retrograde flow. Skeletal muscle contractions assist blood flow.
    • Diagnostic tests used for cardiovascular function include auscultation (for listening to heart sounds), ECG (for measuring heart's electrical activity), echocardiography (for recording heart valve movements), exercise stress tests, chest X-rays, cardiac catheterization, angiography, and Doppler studies, and blood tests.

    Coronary Artery Disease

    • The narrowing or complete closure of coronary arteries due to atheromoa (plaque).
    • Risk factors include age, gender (common after 40 in men, higher HDL in women), family history, obesity, smoking, lack of exercise, dietary habits, poorly controlled hypertension, and certain medications.
    • Diagnostic tests use serum lipid tests to determine cholesterol levels, which are involved in atheroma formation.
    • Treatments include weight loss, lifestyle modification (diet, exercise, etc.), and cessation of smoking. Surgical interventions are sometimes necessary, such as coronary artery bypass grafting.
    • Types of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Angina Pectoris (chest pain due to insufficient oxygen to the heart muscle), Myocardial Infarction (MI) (heart attack caused by blockage completely or mostly closing the coronary artery).
    • Warning signs to watch out for include chest pain (especially with increased activity), sudden shortness of breath, weakness, fatigue, nausea, indigestion, anxiety, and possible pain that is substernal, crushing, or radiating.
    • When the coronary artery is totally obstructed, atherosclerosis (hardening of arterial walls, degeneration of small arteries and arterioles, and obstruction of lumen), thrombosis from atheroma, and/or vasospasm may be the cause of a heart attack. The size and location of the heart attack or infarct determine the damage done to the heart.
    • Diagnostic tests for MI include ECG changes, serum enzyme and isoenzyme levels from necrotic cells, elevated serum myosin and cardiac troponin, and elevated CRP and ESR.
    • Complications of MI include thromboembolism, congestive heart failure, dysrhythmias, sudden death, and cardiogenic shock.
    • Treatment for MI includes reducing cardiac demand, oxygen therapy, analgesics, anticoagulants, thrombolytic agents (tissue plasminogen activator), and treatment of resulting dysrhythmias, hypertension, and heart failure.

    Cardiac Dysrhythmias

    • Deviations from normal cardiac rate or rhythm typically caused by factors such as electrolyte abnormalities, fever, hypoxia, stress, infection, drug toxicity of the conduction system.
    • Abnormalities can cause the heart's pumping efficiency to decrease which can lead to various symptoms.
    • Sinus node abnormalities may be a cause if you have bradycardia (slow but regular heart rate), or tachycardia (rapid but regular heart rate). This condition is often called sick sinus syndrome and often requires a mechanical pacemaker.
    • Other possible causes of dysrhythmias include premature atrial contractions/beats (PACS), atrial flutter (160-350 beats/minute), and atrial fibrillation (over 350 beats/minute).
    • Atrial flutter or fibrillation requires a heart rate assessment as well as blood tests to determine the cause of the issue.
    • Atrioventricular (AV) node abnormalities can lead to heart blocks. Treatments and Prevention for dysrhythmias include treating the underlying cause, using antidysrhythmic drugs, or needing a pacemaker or defibrillator.

    Disorders of Blood Pressure Regulation

    • Blood pressure control is vital to providing sufficient blood flow to the organs. Arterial pressure is higher than venous pressure.
    • Arterial pressure propels blood to all body tissues, while venous pressure propels blood through the lungs.
    • Factors in blood pressure regulation include: Sympathetic branch of ANS; Increased output → vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure; Decreased output → vasodilation and decreased blood pressure. Hormonal mechanisms are impacted by antidiuretic hormone (↑ BP); aldosterone (↑ blood volume, ↑ BP); renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (vasoconstriction; ↑ BP). Circadian rhythms also impact; nocturnal "dipping".
    • The factors that can cause hypertension (high blood pressure): primary hypertension (essential hypertension, cause unknown) - increase in arteriolar vasoconstriction, and secondary hypertension - disease of the kidney and endocrine system and/or some medications like oral contraceptives. Also age, gender, race, family history, salt intake, other dietary habits, smoking, diabetes, and excessive alcohol may lead to high blood pressure.
    • Treatment includes lifestyle modifications and appropriate drugs

    Peripheral Arterial Disease

    • Atherosclerosis is a disease that occurs outside of the heart in the peripheral arteries. Femoral and popliteal arteries are commonly affected. At risk are men, older women, certain factors related to their lifestyle.
    • Signs and symptoms include increasing fatigue and weakness in the legs, intermittent claudication (leg pain), sensory impairment (tingling, burning, numbness), reduced peripheral pulses distal to the occlusion, pallor or cyanosis, dry skin, and hairless toenails, and dependent rubor.
    • Symptoms may become worse if blood flow severely reduced; these include severe pain, ulceration, gangrene, and amputation.
    • Diagnostic tests for PAD include blood flow assessment using Doppler studies, arteriography and or CT angio. Plethysmography measures the size of limbs and blood volume in organs or tissues.
    • Treatment depends on reducing the associated symptoms and decreasing the risk of CVD. Lifestyle modifications include blood sugar control, weight loss, healthy diet, stopping smoking and exercise. Medications such as vasodilators, nitroglycerin, and anticoagulants are necessary, and sometimes bypass or artery grafting are necessary.

    Aortic Aneurysm

    • An aneurysm involves the dilation or weakening of the aorta.
    • Common causes include atherosclerosis, degeneration of the medial layer of the vessel, and conditions such as trauma, infections, or congenital defects.
    • The risk for aortic aneurysm is high in individuals with hypertension, being an older male, or smoking.
    • Types of aneurysms include: Saccular (false) - a bulging wall on one side ; and Fusiform (true) - a circumferential dilation - along a section of the vessel
    • Aortic dissection has developed when there is a tear; blood continues inside the vessel, dissecting or separating tissue layers
    • Symptoms depend on the size and location, such as a "bruit" which may be heard during auscultation, pulse may be felt along the abdomen or severe hemorrhage and death if rupture happens.
    • Treatment includes maintaining the blood pressure and preventing sudden pressure elevations by preventing exertions, stress, and coughing or constipation, and eventually surgical repairs.

    Venous Disease

    • Disordered venous systems result in congestion, predispose to clot formation, and blood flow becomes stagnant.
    • Common causes of venous disease include superficial or deep veins, and varicose veins which will lead to venous insufficiency.
    • Risk factors for venous disease include age, female gender, obesity, pregnancies, and heredity.
    • Varicose veins are dilated, tortuous veins in the lower extremities, and results from prolonged standing, increased intra-abdominal pressure, pregnancy, lifting, or hormones, and pressure on the iliac and femoral veins for supporting body weight.
    • Manifestations include visible veins, aching and edema. Often treatment is through wearing pressure stockings, exercise, and sometimes surgery.
    • Chronic venous insufficiency is a result of a DVT, valve incompetence, or both. An effective one-way blood flow through the veins no longer occurs.
    • Signs and symptoms of venous insufficiency include edema, skin atrophy, hemosiderin staining, and stasis ulcers.
    • Treatment includes compression, medication to improve blood flow.
    • Venous thrombosis, or "thrombophlebitis" occurs with accompanied inflammation in a vein. Infection is frequently in the deep veins of the legs, or in a DVT. Causes can be stasis of blood, endothelial injury/vascular trauma and/or increased blood coagulability.
    • Manifestations include inflammation or discomfort, swelling, tenderness, fever, malaise, and leukocytosis.
    • Diagnosis uses D-dimer or Doppler ultrasound, and treatment usually involves supportive and symptomatic therapy and preventative measures, such as early ambulation, and appropriate exercise, compression stockings, elevating the legs, or prophylactic anticoagulation therapy and/or thrombolytic therapy and surgery

    Heart Failure

    • Heart failure is a complex syndrome that occurs when the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's metabolic needs.
    • Heart failure may be from a functional or structural heart issue which reduces pumping ability. One side of the heart typically fails first.
    • The left side of the heart involves pumping blood into the systemic circulation, and failure may lead to congestion in the lungs which may lead to fluid in the alveoli (pulmonary). The right side of the heart pumps blood into pulmonary circulation; failure results in congestion of systemic circulation (edema in the legs, feet, tissues).
    • Causes include MI, valve defects, hypertension, lung disease, and congenital heart defects, and increased demands on the heart (obesity, diabetes, renal failure, excessive alcohol, smoking) or other issues that impact the heart's function or pumping ability.
    • Pathophysiology of CHF involves dilation of the heart chambers, hypertrophy of the heart muscle, and thickening of ventricle walls. Increased heart muscle tissue needs more blood supply. Heart tissue begins to die and replaced by scar tissue.
    • Forward Effects involve reduced blood flow to organs causing hypoxia, fatigue, dizziness, and confusion.
    • Backward effects are from output from the ventricle being less than inflow of blood due to congestion in the body that results in dependent edema, weight gain, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, distended neck veins, and ascites.
    • Causes of left-sided HF include acute myocardial infarction, uncontrolled hypertension, and cardiomyopathy. Causes of right-sided HF include persistent left-sided failure, stenosis or regurgitation of valves (tricuspid or pulmonic), right ventricular infarction, cardiomyopathy, and acute or chronic pulmonary disease.
    • Some of the signs and symptoms of CHF include: fatigue and weakness, dyspnea (shortness of breath) and orthopnea (shortness of breath when lying down), or paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea. Related to the left-sided failure include: dyspnea and orthopnea from excess pulmonary congestion, cough, fluid accumulating in the lungs, and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea; related to right-sided failure include edema (feet/legs, ascites/fluid accumulation in the belly), distended neck veins, and hepatomegaly.
    • Diagnostic tests: include auscultation (for heart sounds), ECG (elevated heart rates or dysrhythmias), echocardiography (structure, function of the heart), chest x-ray (for enlarged heart or pulmonary edema), and cardiac catheterization (measure pressure in the chambers). Blood tests for serum enzymes, levels of myosin and cardiac troponin may be elevated to rule out MI.
    • Treatment for CHF includes controlling the underlying cause, managing fluid and electrolyte imbalance, adding bicarbonate to the blood to reverse acidosis, and dietary modifications.

    Respiratory System Disorders

    • The respiratory system consists of upper and lower respiratory tracts with different functions. The upper respiratory tract warms and moistens inhaled air; and residents from the body are part of normal flora and are helpful. In contrast, the lower respiratory tract is sterile, and is for gas exchange.
    • Structures of the upper respiratory system include nasal cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, and larynx. Structures of the lower respiratory tract include the bronchial tree (which branches continuously into right and left bronchi, secondary bronchi, and bronchioles), alveolar ducts, and alveoli.
    • Gas exchange occurs through the movement of oxygen from alveoli (air sacs) via diffusion to the blood in the capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood in the capillaries into the alveoli, and then inspired.
    • The rate of gas exchange can be affected by several factors, and includes the partial pressure differences (Dalton's law) or gradients between gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide) as well as how the gases move through the tissue, and the total area where this transfer takes place, and the ventilation-perfusion ratio, in which factors affecting the ventilation (air flow) as well as perfusion (blood flow) must match to maximize gas exchange.
    • Ventilation is the process of inspiratory and expiratory air using Boyle's law to move air from an area of high pressure to an area with low pressure. Inspiration involves an inward movement of the chest wall to lower pressure inside the lungs, and oxygen is brought in, and during expiration, the chest wall moves out to increase the pressure inside the lungs and to push out the air and carbon dioxide. The primary control centers are located in the medulla and pons, which are stimulated by chemoreceptors in the blood and/or cerebrospinal fluids to regulate the rate of breathing. Hypercapnia is an increase in carbon dioxide in the blood which causes an increase in rate and depth of respirations. Hypoxemia is a marked decrease in oxygen levels in the blood. These conditions can be a result of a respiratory-based issue, or caused by hyperventilation and/or hypoventilation. The normal ranges for pH, PaCO2, and HCO3 are important in evaluating the blood chemistry.
    • A number of diagnostic tests can be used including Spirometry and PFTs (pulmonary function tests.) for diagnosing respiratory diseases. Radiography for viewing or evaluating tumors or infections, bronchoscopy for performing biopsies or checking for site of bleeding, culture and sensitivity tests for pathogens, and analysis of ABGs (arterial blood gases) is essential.
    • Treatment for respiratory diseases can be addressed by treating underlying causes and includes using respiratory hygiene, avoiding irritants, and/or medications including expectorants, bronchodilators or appropriate chest therapies (postural drainage, percussion). Surgery may be needed, if needed, to remove damaged tissue, such as lung reduction (removing 20-30% of damaged lungs to maximize the efficient use of the non-damaged tissue)

    Infection

    • Microorganisms can include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, or viruses. Nonpathogenic microorganisms are usually not harmful unless conditions change. Pathogenic microorganisms may cause disease.
    • Infections are transmitted via various routes, such as direct contact or indirect contact through a vector or through bodily fluids. Diseases often involve an incubation period, prodromal period, acute period, and then a recovery period.
    • The factors that can cause host resistance to decrease include age (infants and older adults), pregnancy, malnutrition, chronic disease, stress and inflammation or trauma.
    • Pathogenicity of a microbe is its capability to cause disease. Virulence is the degree of pathogenicity. Pathogens are classified through microscopy as well as based on cell wall chemical composition (Gram stains-positive or negative). Methods of treatment depend on the organism's characteristics in regards to virulence and pathogenicity. Treatment may include antibiotics and/or supportive therapy, depending on the specifics of the infection or other conditions needed for recovery.
    • Nosocomial infections occur in healthcare facilities and are among the top 10 causes of inpatient infections. The spread of nosocomial infections is reduced by practicing standard precautions. Knowing how to break the chains of infection will also lower and potentially eliminate the chance of a nosocomial infection from being spread.
    • Some examples of newly emerging diseases include different forms of common infections, extremely virulent infections like Ebola in endemic areas and/or beyond, including SARS from southeast Asia. Some immunizations are losing their protective qualities and resistance among microbes may exist in forms such as tuberculosis or Staphylococcal aureus.
    • Diagnosing infections may occur through clinical presentation and assessment, culture and sensitivity/staining techniques, and/or blood tests to check for leukocytosis or leukopenia. Other methods may involve radiology or other procedures involving the use of body fluid samples.

    General information about Body Systems

    • Health means physical, mental, and social well-being
    • Disease is a deviation from the body's normal homeostasis or balance. Acute disease is one where a disease develops quickly, has notable signs, and is usually short-term. In contrast, chronic disease often develops more slowly, has mild signs, and tends to be long-term.
    • Additional features of how a disease occurs and the characteristics of a disease include the subclinical state, latent state, the clinical manifestations (local and systemic), the cause, remission and exacerbation, predisposing factors, and types of prognosis and mortality, and occurrence rates (epidemic and/or pandemic).

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on the physiological events of the cardiac cycle, the functions of the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, and the interpretation of electrocardiograms (ECG). This quiz covers essential concepts in cardiac physiology, including heart sounds, conduction system, and complications related to myocardial infarctions.

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