Carbohydrates Overview

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides: single sugar unit, simple carbohydrate, examples: glucose, fructose, galactose
• Disaccharides: two sugar units, simple carbohydrate, examples: lactose, sucrose, maltose
• Oligosaccharides: 3-10 sugar units, complex carbohydrate, examples: raffinose, stachyose
• Polysaccharides: more than 10 sugar units, complex carbohydrate, examples: glycogen, starch, dietary fiber
• Glucose: most abundant monosaccharide in plants (fruits, vegetables, grains)
• Fructose: found in fruits, honey, highly processed foods with added sugars
• Galactose: primarily comes from lactose, found in dairy products
• Lactose: disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose
• Sucrose: most abundant disaccharide, found in honey, fruits, vegetables, table sugar (glucose + fructose)
• Maltose: disaccharide composed of glucose and glucose
• Glycosidic bond: chemical bond between two monosaccharides, formed when a hydroxyl group (-OH) from one monosaccharide interacts with a hydrogen group (-H) from another monosaccharide, forms one water molecule (H2O)
• Amylose: starch with a linear (unbranched) chain of glucose molecules, forms α-1,4 glycosidic bonds
• Amylopectin: starch with a highly branched chain of glucose molecules, forms α-1,4 glycosidic bonds in linear portions and α-1,6 bonds at branch points
• Glycogen: highly branched polysaccharide of glucose, found primarily in liver and skeletal muscles, forms α-1,4 glycosidic bonds in linear portions and α-1,6 bonds at branch points
• Glycogen, Glucagon, and Insulin: All involved in blood glucose regulation and energy storage
  • Glycogen: storage form of glucose in the liver and muscles, providing energy
  • Insulin: secreted by beta cells in the pancreas, lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and storage as glycogen
  • Glucagon: secreted by alpha cells in the pancreas, increases blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown in the liver
• Lactose Intolerance: lack of lactase enzyme, leading to digestive issues like gas, bloating, diarrhea, and cramps. Can be primary (aging), secondary (GI damage), or genetic. Common in certain ethnicities (Native American, African American, Asian American)
• Milk Allergy: immune system response to milk proteins, causing digestive issues (vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, etc.), skin issues (hives, itching), respiratory issues, and potentially other symptoms.
• Diverticulosis: small pouches form in the lining of the colon, generally asymptomatic
• Diverticulitis: inflammation of the pouches, leads to pain, fever, changes in bowel habits, etc.

Protein digestion

• Gastrin: hormone triggers the release of hydrochloric acid (HCL) and pepsinogen
• HCL: disrupts protein structure (secondary, tertiary, quaternary), but not the primary structure
• Pepsinogen: an inactive proenzyme activated by HCL in acidic environment, converting to the active form pepsin
• Trypsin: pancreatic protein-digesting enzyme
• Deamination: breakdown of amino acids to produce lipids or glucose as needed, releases toxic ammonia (NH3)
• Transamination: transfer of an amino group from one amino acid to another, producing nonessential amino acids
• Essential Amino Acids: must be obtained through diet.
• Nonessential Amino Acids: can be synthesized by the body.

Lipids

• Fatty Acids: long chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached.
• Triglycerides: glycerol molecule with three fatty acids attached, used for energy storage, insulation, and protection.
• Phospholipids: glycerol molecule with two fatty acids and a phosphate group, crucial for cell membrane structure.
• Sterols: diverse group of lipids with a complex ring structure, including cholesterol.
• Fat-soluble Vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
• Saturated fatty acid: only single carbon-carbon bonds, mostly solid at room temperature (fats)
• Unsaturated fatty acid: one or more double bonds, mostly liquid at room temperature (oils)
• Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA): one double bond, semi-solid/thick liquid at room temperature
• Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA): two or more double bonds, liquid at room temperature
• Cis double bond: hydrogen atoms on the same side of the double bond, leads to bends in the molecule.
• Trans double bond: hydrogen atoms on opposite sides of the double bond, creates a straighter molecule.
• HDL (High-density lipoprotein): "good Cholesterol", transports cholesterol from the body to the liver for excretion
• LDL (Low-density lipoprotein): "bad Cholesterol", transports cholesterol from the liver to the body, high levels contribute to cardiovascular disease.

Test your knowledge on carbohydrates, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. This quiz covers their definitions, examples, and types, helping you understand the fundamental concepts of carbohydrates. Challenge yourself to identify and differentiate between various sugars and their sources.