Canals & Railroads: Connections & Commerce

Connecting Canals: Oceans, Lakes, and Rivers

• Canals linked waterways and facilitated trade.
• The Grand Canal in China connected rivers and lakes during the Sui dynasty (581–618 CE).
• The Canals of Amsterdam connected different parts of the city.
• The Panama Canal, completed in 1914, linked the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Railroad Cities

• Railroads led to the creation of railway towns, which became hubs of commerce and industry.
• Amman, Jordan, developed along the Hejaz Railway (1904).
• Nairobi, Kenya, was founded as a depot for the Uganda-Kenya Railway (1899).

Railroads and Coordination: Telegraphs, Time, and Gauge

• The telegraph improved railroad operations by enhancing coordination and safety.
• Before telegraphs, railroads relied on timed departures, leading to accidents.
• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) was adopted in 1847.
• The rail gauge of 4 ft. 8.5 in. was standardized.

Railroads, the State, and War

• Railroads were strategically significant for military logistics.
• During the American Civil War (1861–1865) and the Prussian-Austrian War (1866), railroads played a decisive role.
• The Trans-Siberian Railway (1891–1916) strengthened Russia’s control over its empire.

Transcontinental Railroads

• The First Transcontinental Railroad in the U.S. was completed in 1869.
• The Golden Spike ceremony symbolized this completion in Promontory, Utah.
• Cecil Rhodes envisioned the Cape to Cairo Railway to link British colonies in Africa, but it was never fully completed.

The California Gold Rush

• Gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill in 1848.
• By 1854, 300,000 people arrived in California.
• California's economy and demographics transformed, leading to statehood in 1850.

Baking, Banking, Blue Jeans, and Chocolate - SF & the Legacy of the Gold Rush

• San Francisco's population exploded from 1,000 in 1848 to 20,000 by 1850.
• Wells Fargo (banking) emerged in 1852.
• Levi’s (blue jeans) emerged in 1853.
• Ghirardelli (chocolate) emerged in 1852.

The Australian Gold Rush

• Australia’s first gold rush began in 1851.
• Gold was discovered in Victoria and New South Wales.
• By 1858, over 1 million people had migrated to Australia.

Gold Rushes, Inflation, and the Gold Standard

• Gold rushes in California and Australia led to significant inflation.
• The Gold Standard was adopted by Britain in 1821.
• The Gold Standard stabilized currencies by pegging them to gold reserves.

Diamonds, Gold, and the Making of South Africa

• Diamonds were discovered in Kimberley in 1867.
• Gold was discovered in the Witwatersrand in 1886.
• Cecil Rhodes consolidated the diamond industry through De Beers.
• Johannesburg, South Africa’s largest city, was founded due to the gold rush.
• The Second Boer War took place from 1899–1902.

Liberal Revolutions, Nationalism, and the Barricades (esp. 1848)

• The 1848 Revolutions swept across Europe.
• The February Revolution in France led to the establishment of the Second Republic.
• Movements for unification and independence in Germany and Italy were crushed.

The Taiping Revolution (1850–1864)

• Led by Hong Xiuquan, the Taiping Rebellion sought to overthrow the Qing dynasty.
• The rebellion caused an estimated 20–30 million deaths.

The Second Opium War (1856–1860)

• Also known as the Arrow War, this conflict resulted in the Treaty of Tianjin (1858).
• The Treaty of Tianjin opened more Chinese ports to foreign trade and legalized opium.
• The Summer Palace in Beijing was burned.

Indian Revolt of 1857 (1857–1858)

• Known as the Sepoy Mutiny, this rebellion was against British rule.
• The revolt led to the end of the East India Company and the beginning of direct British rule in India.

The Crimean War (1853–1856) and the Abolition of Serfdom (1861)

• The Crimean War pitted Russia against Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire.
• Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861, freeing 22 million serfs.

Alexander von Humboldt

• Humboldt's explorations in Latin America (1799–1804) laid the foundation for modern ecology.
• Kosmos (1845–1862) synthesized knowledge of the natural world.

Charles Darwin & Alfred Russel Wallace

• Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle (1831–1836) led to his theory of natural selection.
• Wallace independently developed a similar theory.
• Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) revolutionized biology.

Evolution and Deep Time

• Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged traditional religious views of creation.
• Charles Lyell’s work on geological time contributed to the concept of deep time.

The Royal Geographical Society & Exploration

• Founded in 1830, the Royal Geographical Society supported explorers.
• David Livingstone, Henry Morton Stanley, and Richard Burton mapped Africa’s interior.

The Quest for the Sources of the Nile

• John Hanning Speke identified Lake Victoria in 1858.
• David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley explored Central Africa and mapped the Congo River.

The Risorgimento, Mazzini, and Italian Unification

• The Risorgimento was the 19th-century movement for Italian unification.
• Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831.
• The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861 under King Victor Emmanuel II.
• Unification was completed in 1870 after the capture of Rome.
• The Expedition of the Thousand, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, unified southern Italy.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) was a revolutionary leader in the unification of Italy.
• Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, conquering Sicily and Naples.
• Garibaldi’s forces were known as the Redshirts.

German Unification

• German unification was achieved under Otto von Bismarck.
• The German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
• Wilhelm I was Emperor.

The Franco-Prussian War

• The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) was a conflict between France and Prussia.
• The French defeat led to the fall of Napoleon III and the establishment of the Third Republic in France.
• Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by Germany.

The Meiji Restoration and The Iwakura Mission

• The Meiji Restoration (1868) marked the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate.
• The Iwakura Mission (1871–1873) studied Western systems.

The Second Industrial Revolution

• The Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870–1914) was characterized by rapid technological advancements.
• Advancements included steel (via the Bessemer Process), electricity, and chemical industries.
• Germany and the United States emerged as industrial giants.

The Department Store

• The department store emerged as a symbol of the Second Industrial Revolution and consumer culture.
• Le Bon Marché in Paris (founded in 1852) was one of the first modern department stores.

The New Industrial Giants: Germany and the United States

• Germany and the United States surpassed Britain as the world’s leading industrial powers.
• Germany dominated industries like chemicals and electrical goods.
• The U.S. led in steel production and automobiles.

The German Research University

• The German Research University model, pioneered by Wilhelm von Humboldt, emphasized the integration of research and teaching.
• The University of Berlin (founded in 1811) fostered innovation in science, technology, and the humanities.

The American Research University

• The American Research University emerged in the late 19th century, influenced by the German model.
• Johns Hopkins University (founded in 1876) and the University of Chicago (founded in 1890) emphasized research and graduate education.
• The Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890 established land-grant universities.

A New Urban Organization: Police, Underground, and Water

• Police: The Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 established a professional police force in London.
• Underground: The London Underground opened in 1863.
• Water: The Crossness Pumping Station (1865) was built to manage sanitation in London.

Haussmann's Paris

• Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann redesigned Paris between 1853 and 1870.

The World's Fair and International Expos

• The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London (Crystal Palace) showcased technological advancements.
• The Paris Expos of 1889 and 1900 also took place.
• The Eiffel Tower was a lasting symbol of the 1889 Expo.

Showcase Capitals: Vienna and New Delhi

• Vienna: The Ringstraße was constructed in the 1860s-1890s.
• New Delhi: Designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker, it was constructed between 1911 and 1931.

The Skyscraper, Chicago, St. Louis, and New York

• The Home Insurance Building in Chicago (1884) was built.
• The Wainwright Building in St. Louis (1891) was built.
• The Woolworth Building in New York (1913) was built.

Oil Boom

• The first commercial oil well was drilled in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859.

Rubber

• The Brazilian Amazon was a major source of natural rubber.
• The Congo Free State became infamous for its brutal rubber extraction practices under King Leopold II.

National Parks

• Yellowstone was founded in 1872.
• Yosemite was founded in 1890.
• The U.S. National Park Service was founded in 1916.

The Bicycle

• Bicycles became popular in the 1890s.
• The bicycle was a symbol of social change for women.

Motorized Transportation: Automobiles and Airplanes

• Automobiles: Karl Benz developed the first practical automobile in 1885-1886.
• Airplanes: The Wright Brothers achieved the first sustained, controlled flight in 1903.