Canadian Confederation Overview

Canada East (Quebec) and Canada West (Ontario) were united as one province, but frequent political gridlock prevented effective governance.

The lack of a central government made it difficult to formulate consistent policies and manage relations with Britain and Indigenous Peoples.

The French Catholic minority in Canada East sought assurances to protect their language and religion within the proposed union.

Britain repealed the Corn Laws, ending favorable trade tariffs for colonies, making them economically dependent.

The Great Trunk Railway faced financial difficulties, highlighting the need for shared resources and funding.

Confederation offered the potential for shared resources, increased trade, and infrastructure investment.

The American Civil War and U.S. expansion created fear of invasion, particularly after the Fenian Raids.

Confederation aimed to prevent cultural assimilation by the U.S. and protect French Canadians and their language and religion.

The process of transitioning from a predominantly agricultural economy to one dominated by industrial production, often characterized by technological advancements and mass production.

The process of people moving to and concentrating in urban areas, often driven by economic opportunities and technological advancements.

The act of joining together separate colonies or territories into a single, united nation.

The British North America Act, passed in 1867, established the Dominion of Canada, uniting Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia under a federal system.

A system of government that divides power between a central authority (federal) and regional authorities (provincial).

The first Prime Minister of Canada, a strong advocate for a central government, played a crucial role in Confederation.

A political leader representing French Canadians during Confederation, advocating for the protection of their language and cultural rights.

A political leader who championed representation by population and federalism to break political deadlocks during Confederation.

The Métis, a mixed-race people of European and Indigenous ancestry, faced hardship due to crop failures and pressure from settlers moving west in the years following Confederation.

Led by Louis Riel, the Métis established a provincial government in 1870 to protect their rights, land, and culture.

An act passed in 1870 that created the province of Manitoba and guaranteed certain rights to the Métis, including language rights, confessional schools, and a land reserve.

The Dominion Lands Act of 1872 offered free land to individuals who would settle and cultivate it in Western Canada, a key policy in colonizing the western territories.

The North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) was established to maintain order in the West, regulating the whiskey trade with Indigenous communities and serving as negotiators in treaty negotiations.

A series of 11 treaties signed with Indigenous communities from 1871 to 1921, establishing reserves and promising payments, healthcare, and education.

The Indian Act of 1876 imposed a legal framework on Indigenous communities, defining ‘status Indians’, establishing Band Councils, and regulating their lives within the reserve system.

The period between 1871 and 1911 witnessed a significant surge in Canada's population, doubling from 3.7 to 7.2 million. This growth was driven by both immigration and natural population increase.

The movement advocating for the prohibition of alcohol, primarily led by the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). They linked temperance to broader moral and social reforms, including women's suffrage.

A series of events in 1907 saw attacks on Asian communities and businesses in Vancouver, fueled by anti-Asian sentiments.

This refers to the period between 1896 and 1914, when Canada's western provinces were actively promoted as a desirable destination for immigrants.

In 1886 - 1889, a royal commission was established to address the ongoing conflicts between employers and workers during that period.

This policy, introduced in 1878 by John A. Macdonald, aimed to boost Canada's economy through protective tariffs, railway construction, and immigration.

The 1877 Montreal Dockworkers' Strike was a significant labor action in response to poor working conditions, highlighting the growing labor conflicts in Canada's industrial centers.

From 1880 to 1910, there was a rise in union membership and strike activity as workers increasingly sought better working conditions and wages.

The "Nine-Hour Movement" was a significant labor strike in 1872 in Toronto, where printers and typographers demanded a reduction of the workday to nine hours.

In 1914, Ontario implemented the Workers' Compensation Act to provide financial support to injured workers, marking a significant step in worker protections.

The development of mechanized meat processing, involving slaughter, canning, and packaging, led to new industries focused on meat production and transportation.

Electric streetcars revolutionized urban transportation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, facilitating mobility, connecting different areas of cities, and promoting suburban growth.

From 1896 to 1914, Clifford Sifton, Canada's Minister of the Interior, actively sought to attract desirable immigrants, particularly farmers from Eastern Europe, as part of the "Last Best West" campaign.

Chinese immigration to Canada experienced two major waves. The first was driven by the Fraser River Gold Rush in 1858. The second wave occurred between 1880-1885, primarily motivated by work opportunities on the Canadian Pacific Railway.

Facing labor shortages and a desire to populate Western Canada, 19th-century Canada heavily relied on immigration to fuel its economic growth.

The Toronto Women's Literary Club (1876) and the Dominion Women's Enfranchisement Association (1889) advocated for women's right to vote, connecting it to their roles as moral guardians and promoters of societal improvement.

Immigration played a crucial role in populating western Canada, providing labor for industries like the Canadian Pacific Railway, and boosting economic growth through policies like the National Policy.

The arrival of non-white immigrants sparked fears of economic competition and cultural change, leading to discriminatory policies like the Chinese head tax and bans on specific groups, such as Black Americans and South Asians.

Canada automatically entered World War I as part of the British Empire when Britain declared war on August 4, 1914.

The Canadian Expeditionary Force saw 650,000 Canadians enlist, with 65,000 casualties and 150,000 injuries.

The rise of industrialization, competition in European markets, imperial rivalries in Africa and Asia, unifying nationalism, and an arms race all contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

Canadian soldiers faced harsh conditions in the trenches, including mud, disease, and constant danger from artillery and chemical weapons.

Considered Canada's most significant military achievement in WWI, the Battle of Vimy Ridge (1917) saw Canadian forces capture the ridge in four days after a well-planned attack led by Sir Julian Byng, despite 10,600 casualties, including 3,600 deaths.

Recruitment posters used cultural references to encourage French Canadians to enlist, despite resistance. Japanese, Black, and Indigenous Canadians also served in the war, with notable figures like Francis Pegahmagabow, an Anishnaabe sniper and the most decorated Indigenous soldier in the war.

The war initially caused an economic recession and paralyzed industrial production, but by 1916, unemployment vanished as the need for military equipment and agricultural production increased. The Imperial Munitions Commission (IMC) oversaw state-run companies and corporations, exceeding $2 million in daily production by 1917.

With voluntary enlistment slowing, Robert Borden's government introduced conscription through the Military Service Act in 1917, leading to significant divisions between English Canadians who supported it and French Canadians, led by Henri Bourassa, who opposed it.

The 1917 federal election, influenced by wartime laws, granted voting rights to soldiers and nurses while disenfranchising recent immigrants from enemy countries. Borden's party won with 90% of soldiers' votes, securing conscription.

During the war, the Canadian government implemented social measures like conscription, propaganda, and censorship to support the war effort, while also introducing economic measures like Victory Bonds and income/corporate taxes for funding.

Women played a crucial role in the war effort, working in factories, replacing men in the workforce, and serving as nurses on the front, contributing to their fight for suffrage and gaining the right to vote in 1917 in many provinces.

The War Measures Act (1914) enabled the government to suspend civil liberties for security reasons, leading to the detention of over 8,500 individuals, mainly of Ukrainian descent, as 'enemy aliens' in labor camps from 1914 to 1920.

A 1982 constitutional amendment that included the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and recognized Aboriginal and treaty rights.

A political movement that emphasized Quebec's unique culture and advocated for greater autonomy from Canada.

An attempt to secure Quebec's participation in the 1982 Constitution by recognizing Quebec as a "distinct society".

A 1990 crisis involving the Mohawk community of Kanesatake and Quebec authorities over land rights, leading to a 78-day standoff with the Canadian Army.

The principle that Indigenous peoples in Canada have inherent rights that are recognized and protected by the Constitution.

An organization that advocated for Indigenous rights and inclusion in the Constitution Act, 1982.

A 1992 constitutional accord that aimed to address constitutional issues following the Meech Lake Accord's failure, but was ultimately rejected in a nationwide referendum.

A Cree MLA from Manitoba who refused to support the Meech Lake Accord due to its exclusion of Indigenous concerns, leading to its failure.

The right of Indigenous peoples to self-government and control over their own affairs.

Government-run boarding schools established to assimilate Indigenous children into European culture. They were notorious for their harshness, abuse, and high mortality rates, leading to lasting trauma for survivors.

A report published in 1907 that revealed the high death rates in residential schools, highlighting the deplorable conditions and neglect of Indigenous children's health.

Designated areas where Indigenous Peoples were confined and their lands restricted. The intention was to control their movements and resources.

A system implemented in 1886 that required Indigenous individuals to obtain permission from authorities to leave their reserves, restricting their mobility and economic activities.

A period in the 1960s-1980s where thousands of Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in non-Indigenous homes, causing cultural separation and generational trauma.

The first national Indigenous political organization founded in 1918 by Frederick Ogilvie Loft, a Mohawk veteran. It aimed to advocate for Indigenous rights and self-determination.

A period of rapid social and cultural transformation in Quebec in the 1960s, marked by secularization, modernization, and a growing movement for Quebec sovereignty.

A system where the government actively intervenes to address social and economic inequalities by providing social programs such as healthcare, unemployment insurance, and pensions.

A significant movement for social and legal changes in the 1960s-1970s, advocating for equal opportunities for women and greater control over their bodies, including access to contraception and abortion.

A landmark legislation passed in 1969 that recognized both English and French as Canada's official languages, aiming to address Quebec's concerns about language protection and promote bilingualism.

A period of significant political and cultural changes in Canada during the 1960s, marked by Pierre Trudeau's leadership, legal reforms, and a growing emphasis on multiculturalism.

A federal government proposal in 1969 that aimed to abolish the Indian Act and reserves, which was widely rejected as an attempt to erase Indigenous rights and culture.

A crucial event in 1967 celebrating Canada's 100th anniversary, showcasing Canadian multiculturalism and diversity. For the first time, Indigenous peoples had a dedicated pavilion to share their history and perspectives.

The era following World War II (1947-1959) saw a significant influx of immigrants primarily from European countries like Italy, Greece, and Germany. This influx fueled Canada's economic growth and led to a rise in cultural diversity, particularly in major cities like Montreal and Toronto.

The arrival of European immigrants during the 1940s and 1950s impacted Quebec's linguistic and cultural landscape, especially as Italian immigrants became a sizeable community, interacting with French and English speakers.

The period following World War II in Canada marked by rapid economic growth and a surge in immigration, particularly from Europe.

The influx of immigrants from Europe after World War II significantly increased Canada's population and contributed to the development of diverse cultural communities, particularly in major cities.

The influx of European immigrants, particularly Italians, led to tensions in Quebec as many immigrants chose English education and integration, challenging the dominance of French language and culture.

A working-class district in Montreal with a growing Italian population, where disputes over language policies – particularly in schools - escalated into a broader cultural conflict.

The Saint-Léonard Crisis led to Quebec's Official Language Act, making French the sole official language of the province, reflecting a push for stronger language policies.

Pierre Trudeau's initiative in 1971 to make multiculturalism an official policy, valuing cultural diversity as a core aspect of Canadian identity. It aimed for integration without assimilation.

Trudeau's vision of multiculturalism was seen as a clash with Quebec's desires for a unilingual French identity, reflecting a broader tension between federal and provincial visions of Canada.

A period of significant social and political change in Quebec, starting after the death of Maurice Duplessis, characterized by modernization and a growing sense of cultural identity.

A radical group advocating for Quebec independence, using controversial methods like bombings, robberies, and kidnappings to advance their goals.

A period of political turmoil in 1970, sparked by the FLQ's kidnappings and bombings, that led to the invocation of the War Measures Act, suspending civil liberties to restore order.

A significant political party in Quebec that emerged after the October Crisis, advocating for Quebec sovereignty, with a focus on preserving French culture and promoting economic independence.

A law passed in Quebec in 1977 that solidified French as the official language of government, education, and business, reinforcing French language rights in the province.

A referendum held in 1980, where Quebecers were asked whether they wanted Quebec to negotiate sovereignty while maintaining economic ties with Canada.

The Great Depression (1929-1939) was a severe global economic downturn that significantly impacted Canada's economy, leading to widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest.

The Dust Bowl (1930s) was a period of severe drought and dust storms in the Canadian Prairies caused by unsustainable agricultural practices. It resulted in widespread crop failure, soil erosion, and mass displacement of families.

The Bank of Canada (founded in 1935) was established to stabilize the Canadian economy and regulate monetary policy to address the challenges of the Great Depression. It aimed to manage interest rates, the value of the Canadian dollar, and the amount of money in circulation.

The Canadian economy suffered a sharp downturn during the Great Depression (1929-1939), with businesses failing, unemployment skyrocketing, and farmers struggling due to falling commodity prices.

Federal and provincial governments responded to the Great Depression with relief programs and public works projects, but these efforts were often slow and inadequate, providing only minimal support to those in need. These measures included the provision of direct relief funds to provinces and initiatives like the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Program.

The Winnipeg General Strike (1919) was a major labor dispute that involved workers from various industries demanding better working conditions and wages. It sparked fear of foreign influence in Canadian labor movements, contributing to anti-immigrant sentiments in the years that followed.

The Canadian government's response to the Great Depression was often slow and ineffective, leading to widespread dissatisfaction and the emergence of new political parties. These included the Social Credit Party in Alberta, the Federal Communist Party, and the Union Nationale in Quebec, advocating for alternative solutions to the economic crisis.

WWII (1939-1945) significantly transformed Canadian society, mobilizing industries for war production, leading to increased government involvement in the economy, and shaping a new era of international cooperation. It also spurred a shift in the role of women in the workforce.

Canada entered WWII on September 10, 1939, a week after Great Britain. The Canadian government, led by Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, initially promised to prioritize the supply of military equipment over sending troops to war. Conscription for overseas service was not implemented at this time.

The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) was a joint effort between the British Commonwealth countries, including Canada, to train aircrews for WWII. Canada played a pivotal role in providing training facilities and resources, contributing significantly to the Allied war effort.

The Permanent Joint Board of Defence (established in 1940) was a bilateral defense mechanism established by Canada and the United States during WWII. It aimed to coordinate defense efforts in North America, demonstrating the growing partnership between the two countries.

D-Day (June 6, 1944), also known as the Normandy Landings, marked a turning point in WWII. It involved a massive Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied Normandy, France, with significant Canadian participation. This operation helped liberate France and ultimately led to the defeat of Germany.

The Canadian Women's Army Corps (CWAC), formed during WWII allowed women to enlist in the army. While initially met with some resistance due to traditional roles, women's contributions were invaluable to the war effort, proving their abilities and determination. They served in various roles, including nursing, communications, administration, and driving.