Canada's Federal System: Government and Institutions

Canada's Federal System

• Canada has a constitutional monarchy, with the King/Queen as the Head of State, but it operates as a democracy where representatives are elected.
• The three branches of government are:
  • Executive Branch: responsible for day-to-day governing, proposing ideas to become laws, and putting laws into action.
    • Members: Prime Minister, Governor General, Cabinet Ministers, and Public Service (Federal workers)
  • Legislative Branch: responsible for passing laws and holding the Executive Branch accountable.
    • Members: House of Commons (HoC) and Senate, with the Governor General as the Head of Government
  • Judicial Branch: interprets laws in a fair and impartial manner.
    • Members: Supreme Court of Canada, with 9 justices appointed by the Executive Branch
• Cabinet Ministers are appointed by the Prime Minister and are responsible for running different governing departments and agencies.
• The Legislative Branch has two parts:
  • House of Commons (elected representatives)
  • Senate (appointed representatives)

Electoral Process

• Canada holds elections every 4 years, but an election can be called at any time by the Governor General at the request of the Prime Minister.
• Voting is based on the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) system, where the person with the most votes in a riding wins the seat in the House of Commons.
• The political party with the most seats in the HoC becomes the ruling party, and its leader becomes the Prime Minister.

Judicial Branch

• The Judicial Branch has no law-making powers, but it interprets laws to ensure they are applied equally to all citizens.
• Supreme Court justices are appointed by the Executive Branch and serve for life (up to age 75).

Checks and Balances

• The Judicial Branch checks the power of the Executive and Legislative Branches.
• The Legislative Branch holds the Executive Branch accountable through questioning in the HoC.

How a Bill Becomes a Law

• First Reading: Bill is presented and considered for the first time
• Second Reading: Parties debate on the principle of the bill
• Committee Stage: Detailed study of the bill by a committee (MPs and Senate)
• Report Stage: Committee reports to the HoC, and the bill is passed onto the Senate
• Royal Assent: Bill is ready to become a law, and the Governor General accepts or declines it on behalf of the King

Bias and Lobbying

• Bias is prejudice or favoritism for or against one thing.
• Lobbyists are individuals who seek to influence political decision-making on specific public issues.

Canada's Current Ruling Government

• The Liberal party is the ruling party, with a minority government holding 158 seats in the HoC.
• The opposition party is the Conservatives.

Canada's System of Justice and the YCJA

• The Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA) aims to prevent future crimes and focuses on rehabilitation and reintegration of youth offenders.
• The YCJA applies to youths aged 12-17.
• Differences between youth and adult justice in Canada:
  • Age: 12-17 for youth, 18+ for adults
  • Possible consequences: counseling and community service for youth, going to court for adults
  • Types of sentencing: prohibits adult sentences for 12-14 year olds, allows adult sentences for 14+ year olds who have committed serious crimes
  • Media and publication of identity: protects the privacy of young offenders, allows publication of offender's names for adults
  • Criminal records: allows most young offenders to avoid a criminal record

Rehabilitation and Reintegration

• Rehabilitation: restoring someone to health or normal life by training and therapy
• Reintegration: bringing the young offender back to their community, so they don't feel like they aren't a part of the community anymore

Factors in Sentencing

• Factors that determine consequences under the YCJA:
  • Age and maturity of the youth
  • Nature and severity of the offence
  • Circumstances surrounding the offence
  • Previous record, if any
  • Degree of responsibility taken by the young person

Jury Duty and Justice Advocacy Groups

• Jury duty is a democratic duty, and anyone over 18 years old and a Canadian citizen can be called for jury duty.
• Justice advocacy groups work independently of the government to provide public education about laws and justice systems, including the YCJA.

Indigenous Communities and Youth Justice

• Indigenous communities approach youth justice through justice committees, which reflect the ideas and values of restorative justice and Indigenous community circles.
• Elders play an important role in this process.

Charter of Rights and Freedoms

• The Charter of Rights and Freedoms was added to Canada's constitution in 1982 by Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau.
• The Charter has 33 sections that outline both individual and collective rights and freedoms.

Fundamental Freedoms

• Freedom of association: freedom to form, join, and leave any groups
• Freedom of peaceful assembly: freedom to protest peacefully
• Freedom of expression: freedom to express thoughts, opinions, and beliefs
• Freedom of religion: freedom to practise and worship any spiritual beliefs in private and public without discrimination

Rights and Freedoms

• Democratic rights: right to vote, participate in public life, and stand for public office
• Mobility rights: right to move freely within the country and seek employment elsewhere
• Legal rights: right to a fair trial, protection against unreasonable search and seizure, and equality before the law
• Equality rights: right not to be discriminated against based on race, age, religion, sexual orientation, gender, and other grounds

Collective Rights

• Collective rights affect a group of individuals, such as Francophones, Anglophones, Métis, and First Nations.
• Collective rights include rights related to language, education, and land use.

Indigenous Collective Rights

• First Nations have collective rights to land, education, healthcare, and self-government.
• The Indian Act and the Constitution Act (1982) affirm the existing inherent and treaty rights of Canada's Indigenous peoples.

Métis Collective Rights

• Métis have collective rights to land, education, and self-government.
• The Métis Population Betterment Act and the Alberta Métis Settlement Accords recognize Métis rights.

Language Rights

• Official Language Act and Charter of Rights and Freedoms recognize the equality of French and English as official languages.
• Francophones and Anglophones have collective rights to education, language, and cultural preservation.

Other Collective Rights

• The Charter of Rights and Freedoms recognizes the collective rights of other groups, such as women, people with disabilities, and LGBTQ+ individuals.### Immigration and Refugee Protection
• The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 35 acknowledges Métis rights.
• Immigration is the process of people establishing homes and often citizenship in a country that is not their native country.
• Push factors are circumstances that force people to leave their country, while pull factors are reasons that attract them to another country.

Factors Encouraging Immigration

• Economic factors: seeking better job opportunities and improving their standard of living.
• Political factors: escaping persecution, conflict, or political instability.
• Health factors: seeking better healthcare systems and services.
• Security factors: seeking a safer country with low crime rates and a stable political environment.
• Rights factors: seeking freedom to practice their religion without discrimination or persecution.

Canada's Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (2002)

• Established three categories of immigrants: Family Class, Refugee Class, and Economic Class.
• Objectives include:
  • Pursuing social, cultural, and economic benefits for all Canadians.
  • Respecting bilingualism and multiculturalism.
  • Reuniting families.
  • Promoting the successful integration of immigrants into Canadian society.

Categories of Immigrants

• Family Class: immediate family members living in Canada can sponsor relatives.
• Refugee Class: seeking sanctuary or refuge in another country due to persecution, torture, or unusual punishment.
• Economic Class: skilled workers contributing to the Canadian economy.

Point System

• A series of questions to determine eligibility for economic immigration to Canada.
• Categories include education, language, work experience, age, arranged employment in Canada, and adaptability.
• A minimum of 67 points out of 100 is required for successful immigration.

The Singh Decision

• Ensured that refugee claimants have the right to a fair and speedy hearing.
• Ruled that denying potential refugees an in-person hearing infringes on their legal rights.
• Led to changes in the Immigration Act to provide necessities of life while awaiting a hearing.

Provincial Nominee Program (PNP)

• Allows provinces and territories to nominate individuals who wish to immigrate to Canada.
• Provinces can select immigrants who meet their specific economic and labor market needs.

Canada-Quebec Accord

• Agreement between the federal government and Quebec, recognizing Quebec's unique cultural and linguistic characteristics.
• Grants Quebec greater control over immigration, allowing them to select immigrants who meet their specific needs.

Scarcity and Economic Systems

• Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of unlimited wants and limited resources.
• Three factors of production: Land, Labour, and Capital.
• Economic systems respond to scarcity in different ways:
  • Planned economy: government decides what to produce, who gets it, and how.
  • Mixed economy: both government and private businesses make decisions.
  • Market economy: individuals and businesses make decisions based on supply and demand.

Supply and Demand

• Supply and demand curves intersect at the equilibrium price and quantity.
• Changes in supply or demand can affect the equilibrium price and quantity.

Monopolies

• A single business that is the sole producer or distributor of a good or service.
• Can be beneficial (stability, lower prices) or harmful (higher prices, lack of innovation).

Labour Unions

• Workers form unions to represent their needs to employers.
• Unions can negotiate better working conditions, higher wages, and benefits.

Consumerism

• The desire to buy goods and services.
• Can positively or negatively affect the economy.
• Factors affecting consumerism include:
  • Identity
  • Health and Safety
  • Environment
  • Need
  • Jobs### Business Operations
• Business operations involve supporting safety, standards, pay wage, and prohibiting child labor

Marketing and Advertising

• Marketing is the act of promoting or selling a product
• Advertising is a part of marketing, and it involves creating ad campaigns to influence consumer behavior
• Types of advertisements:
  • Celebrity Testimonial: using famous people to promote a product
  • Bandwagon Effect: influencing consumers by suggesting "everyone else is doing it"
  • Plain Folks Appeal: relating a product to ordinary people's experiences
  • Comparison: comparing a product to a direct competitor
  • Scientific Appeal: using statistical data to appeal to consumers
  • Glittering Generalities: making promises without delivering results
  • Emotional Appeal: appealing to consumers' emotions, such as fear, love, or nostalgia

Boycotts

• A boycott is a decision by consumers to stop buying a product or service to bring about change
• Boycotts are effective because if producers are not making a profit, they will be encouraged to change their practices

Social Programs

• Social programs are services provided by the government to reduce economic inequality and promote citizen well-being
• Example of a Social Program in Canada: Healthcare
• Social Programs differ in Canada vs the USA: Canada has more social programs, while the USA has fewer due to its market-oriented approach

Canada's Health Care System

• 5 Principles of Canada's Health Care System:
  • Publicly administered: not for profit
  • Comprehensive: covering hospitals, physicians, and surgeons
  • Universal: for all Canadian residents
  • Portable: available throughout Canada
  • Accessible: available within reasonable time and distance

Privatization of Social Programs

• Privatization means individuals are responsible for their own needs, rather than relying on government-funded programs

Social Programs and Taxes

• Social programs are funded by taxes
• Tax money goes towards community development and social programs
• Taxes come from:
  • Property Tax: based on the value of a home and location
  • Income Tax: based on earnings from a job
  • Sales Tax: based on products and services purchased

Levels of Government and Taxes

• All levels of government collect taxes

Provincial Social Programs

• Some Social Programs are controlled by the province rather than the federal government

Transfer Payments

• Transfer payments occur when provinces give other provinces money due to financial needs

Flat Tax Rate vs Progressive Tax Rate

• Flat Tax Rate: a constant tax percentage for all taxable amounts
• Progressive Tax Rate: a tax rate that increases as the taxable amount increases

Underground Economy and Tax Evasion

• Underground Economy: illegal economic transactions
• Tax Evasion: avoiding taxes by not reporting income
• These activities negatively affect social programs by reducing government revenue

Political Platform

• A political platform outlines a party's beliefs and values
• Political platforms affect taxation and social programs, depending on whether the party is left- or right-leaning

Economic Spectrum and Political Parties

• Canadian and American political parties fall on the economic spectrum, influencing their views on social programs and taxation
• Left-leaning parties tend to increase taxes and social programs, while right-leaning parties tend to decrease taxes and social programs