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Pharmaceutical Chemistry

• This document is a study guide for pharmaceutical chemistry, prepared by Dr. Nashwa Mohamed Saber at Suez University.

Contents

• Basic Concepts of Pharmacology
  • Pharmacology: the study of substances that interact with living systems through chemical processes.
  • Toxicology: deals with the undesirable effects of chemicals on living systems.
  • The Drug: any substance that changes biological function through chemical action. Used for diagnosis, treatment, and cure.
  • Drug molecule interacts with specific molecules (receptor molecules) in the body to produce its effect.
  • Drugs can be harmful or helpful depending on the person, conditions, and dosage.
  • Classification of Drugs:
    • Classified according to their pharmacological effects, such as curing infectious diseases (chemotherapeutic agents) or non-infectious diseases (pharmacodynamics' agents).
    • Classified by chemical structures (common skeletons, like penicillins, barbiturates, and steroids).
    • Classified by their target organ systems (e.g., nervous system and cardiovascular system), to be more specific in their action.
    • Classified by their site of action - the enzyme or receptor involved, for example, anti-cholinesterase drugs.
• Drug physical nature and size
  • Drugs can be solid, liquid, or gaseous (e.g. aspirin, ethanol/liquid).
  • The various compartments in the body can alter drug ionization.
  • Most drugs fall in the molecular weight range of 100-900 units.
  • Drugs larger than 1000 units will not readily diffuse throughout the body and must be injected directly.
• Drug stereochemistry (shape)
  • Drugs' activity depends on their interaction with biological targets (proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, membranes).
  • Many drugs are chiral (have enantiomers), with only one form having the desired effect.
• Drug-body interactions
  • Pharmacodynamics: The actions of the drug on the body.
  • Pharmacokinetics: The action of the body on the drug (absorption, distribution, excretion).
• Modes of Drug-Receptor Interactions
  • Normal interactions are similar to a key fitting into a lock (key-lock).
  • Agonists mimic naturally occurring hormones/neurotransmitters.
  • Antagonists block receptors, preventing a response.
  • Drug-receptor interactions involve binding to a specific site on a macromolecule.
• Properties of the drug
• Different types of drug interactions
• Classification of drugs
• How drugs are named (chemical name, generic name, brand name). Examples include ibuprofen, N-acetyl-p-aminophenol/paracetamol
• Drug design
  • Goal is discovering a lead compound with good selectivity and activity, minimal side effects and stable structure.
  • Structure-activity relationships (SAR) are used to optimize the design. Analyzing how modifications to a molecule affect its activity.
• Binding roles of different functional groups
  • Alcohols/phenols: common groups, involve hydrogen bonding. Methyl ethers can disrupt hydrogen bonding. Esters cannot act as H-bond donors.
  • Aromatic Rings: planar, hydrophobic. Interactions with binding site regions. Cyclohexane rings interact less.
• Binding roles of alkanes, ketones and aldehydes: hydrophobic interactions with binding sites.
  • Ketones/aldehydes' ability to interact is variable, but this can be used to their advantage.
• Binding roles of amines: interact via hydrogen bonds, either as donors or acceptors.
• Binding role of carboxylic acids: can act as H-bond donors or acceptors, or through ionic interactions. Carboxylate ion is also a ligand for metal ions.
• Binding role of alkyl groups/carbon skeleton: these are hydrophobic and interact with hydrophobic regions through vdW interactions
• Binding role of alkyl/aryl halides: reactive and can undergo alkylation reactions.
• Binding role of thiols and ethers: have properties that make them suitable ligands for metal ions, also used for other drug targets.
• Types of Nucleic Acids
  • DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides (base + sugar + phosphate) -Only certain types of base pairing are allowed: Adenine pairs with Thymine, and Guanine pairs with Cytosine.
• Antiseptics and disinfectants
  • Substances that kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
  • Differ from antibiotics, which act internally.
  • Chemical classifications include alcohols, phenols, surface-active agents, dyes, heavy metals, halogen compounds, aldehydes, and oxidizing agents.
• Anti-neoplastic agents (anti-cancer)
  • Various methods: surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy
  • Tumors can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).
  • Agents like alkylating agents, antimetabolites, antibiotics, plant products, hormones, and immunotherapy are used.
• Antiviral agents
  • Target viral replication mechanisms, not the virus itself.
  • Difficulties in designing safe and effective drugs, as they use the host's cells.
• Antiprotozoal agents(Antimalarial Drugs)
  • Treats malaria caused by the plasmodium parasite.
  • These drugs inhibit DNA synthesis or tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) synthesis.
• Hypoglycemic agents (antidiabetic drugs)
  • Regulate blood glucose levels
  • Diabetes is caused by the body's failure to produce or use insulin effectively.
  • Drugs include sulfonylureas and thiazolidinediones.

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