Calculating Osmolality in the Presence of Hyperproteinaemia and Hyperlipidaemia

Normal extracellular urea concentrations contribute significantly to the measured plasma osmolality.

In acute uraemia, the increased osmotic gradient does not alter cell hydration.

Normally low extracellular glucose concentrations contribute significantly to the osmolality.

In chronic uraemia, the osmotic effect of urea is reduced as the concentrations gradually equalize on the two sides of the membrane.

Severe hyperglycaemia, whether acute or chronic, causes a marked osmotic effect across cell membranes, with movement of water from cells into the extracellular compartment causing cellular dehydration.

Reduced levels of urea and glucose, unlike those of sodium, can cause cellular overhydration.

Urea diffuses into cells much faster than water.

Glucose is actively transported out of many cells.

Hyperglycaemia, whether acute or chronic, does not cause cellular dehydration.

What health condition is indicated by a T-score of -1.5 in bone density testing?

According to ISCD recommendations, what Z-score range defines 'low bone mineral density for chronological age'?

Which bone density measurement locations are considered in the WHO diagnostic T-score criteria for postmenopausal women and men over 50?

What does a T-score of -2.8 indicate in bone density testing?

What recommended method is used by ISCD instead of T-scores for certain populations?

How does a Z-score of -1.5 differ from a Z-score of -2.5 with regard to bone mineral density?