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Questions and Answers

Oxidizing agents can convert CO into CO2.

True

A reducing agent gets oxidized as it reacts.

False

If there are no changes in the oxidation state of the reactants or products of a particular reaction, that reaction is not a redox reaction.

True

If something is oxidized, it is formally losing electrons.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

If something is reduced, it is formally losing electrons.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the redox reaction (Fe3+) + Co2+ --> (Fe2+) + Co3+, Fe3+ is the reducing agent and Co2+ is the oxidizing agent.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is hydrolysis performed on acetyl-CoA?

<p>The thioester group is hydrolyzed between the S and C to yield an acetyl group and coenzyme A.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens in hydrolysis of ATP?

<p>ATP converts to ADP and releases energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to Ethanol during reduction?

<p>Reduction results in more H+.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to Pyruvate during oxidation?

<p>Oxidation results in less H+.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some characteristics of anabolic processes?

<p>Requires energy inputs, uses NADPH, synthesizes macromolecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some characteristics of catabolic processes?

<p>Transforms fuels into energy, uses NAD+, breaks down macromolecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does hexokinase do in glycolysis?

<p>Hexokinase phosphorylates glucose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does phosphoglucose isomerase do in glycolysis?

<p>It converts glucose 6-phosphate into fructose 6-phosphate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does phosphofructokinase do in glycolysis?

<p>Forms fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does aldolase do in glycolysis?

<p>Cleaves fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase do in glycolysis?

<p>It generates the first intermediate compound with a high phosphoryl-transfer potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does pyruvate kinase do in glycolysis?

<p>Generates the second molecule of ATP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The glycolytic enzyme _______ cleaves fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, yielding two _________.

<p>aldolase, triose phosphates</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the first reaction of glycolysis, glucose is converted to _________.

<p>glucose-6-phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the reactants to create 1 molecule of glucose from two pyruvate molecules via gluconeogenesis?

<p>4 ATP, 2 GTP, 2 NADH.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the catalytic coenzymes of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?

<p>Thiamine pyrophosphate, lipoic acid, FAD.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?

<p>Mitochondrial enzyme complex linking glycolysis and citric acid cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Redox Reactions

  • Oxidizing agents can convert CO to CO2 by facilitating the oxidation of carbon.
  • Reducing agents undergo oxidation and lose electrons during reactions.
  • A reaction without changes in oxidation state is not a redox reaction.
  • Oxidation is characterized by the loss of electrons.
  • Reduction involves the gain of electrons.
  • In the reaction (Fe3+) + Co2+ → (Fe2+) + Co3+, Fe3+ is the oxidizing agent, and Co2+ is the reducing agent.

Hydrolysis of Acetyl-CoA

  • Hydrolysis occurs at the thioester bond, yielding an acetyl group and coenzyme A.
  • Reaction example: CoA-S-C(=O)-CH3 → CoA-S-H + CH3CO.

Hydrolysis of ATP

  • ATP hydrolysis results in the formation of ADP and decreases energy potential.
  • The reaction is exergonic with a ΔG of -30.5 kJ/mol.

Ethanol and Reduction

  • Reduction includes the addition of hydrogen (more H+), indicating increased electron density.

Pyruvate and Oxidation

  • Oxidation denotes the removal of hydrogen (less H+), signifying a decrease in electron density.

Anabolic Processes

  • Require energy input, typically from ATP.
  • Use NADPH as an electron carrier.
  • Involve the synthesis of macromolecules.

Catabolic Processes

  • Convert fuel into cellular energy like ATP or ion gradients.
  • Utilize NAD+ as an electron carrier.
  • Break down macromolecules for energy.

Phosphoglycerate Mutase

  • An intermediate in the phosphoglycerate mutase catalysis has two phosphate groups at carbon 2 and 3.

Donation of Phosphate to His

  • 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate donates a phosphate group to the histidine residue in the phosphoglycerate mutase enzyme.

Pyruvate Products

  • In aerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted to Acetyl-CoA.
  • In anaerobic conditions in humans, pyruvate is reduced to lactate.
  • In yeast, pyruvate undergoes fermentation to produce ethanol and CO2.

Glycolytic Enzymes

  • Hexokinase phosphorylates glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.
  • Phosphoglucose isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-phosphate.
  • Phosphofructokinase generates fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
  • Aldolase cleaves fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose phosphates.
  • Triose phosphate isomerase interconverts three-carbon isomers.
  • Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase produces a high-energy compound.
  • Phosphoglycerate kinase generates the first ATP molecule in glycolysis.
  • Phosphoglycerate mutase converts 3-phosphoglycerate into 2-phosphoglycerate.
  • Enolase forms another high-energy compound.
  • Pyruvate kinase generates another ATP molecule by converting phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate.

Glycolysis Control Points

  • The main control point in glycolysis is step 3, regulated by ATP (negative) and AMP (positive).
  • Steps 1, 3, and 10 are irreversible reactions.

Gluconeogenesis

  • Requires 4 ATP, 2 GTP, and 2 NADH to synthesize glucose from two pyruvate molecules.
  • Key regulatory compounds include ATP, citrate, and acetyl CoA.
  • Step 8 serves as the main negative control point, inhibited by AMP, fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, and insulin.
  • Conversion steps from pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate involve carboxylation, malate formation, and decarboxylation.

Krebs Cycle Insights

  • Acetyl-CoA condenses with oxaloacetate to produce citrate, entering the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
  • Reaction 1 is inhibited by citrate, while reaction 3 and reaction 4 are inhibited by NADH.
  • ADP and Ca2+ serve as activators for reaction 3.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

  • Complex I: NADH dehydrogenase, transferring electrons from NADH to ubiquinone.
  • Complex II: Succinate dehydrogenase, donating electrons from succinate to ubiquinone.
  • Complex III: Cytochrome c oxidoreductase, transferring electrons from ubiquinol to cytochrome c.
  • Complex IV: Cytochrome c oxidase, facilitating electron transfer to O2.
  • Only NADH transfers electrons from glycolysis to the ETC; both NADH and FADH2 contribute to the citric acid cycle and then to the ETC.
  • The ETC produces water and ATP from the electrons carried by NADH and FADH2.

Hormonal Regulation

  • Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a peptide hormone released from the small intestine.
  • Acyl groups are activated by attachment to CoA (coenzyme A).

Transport Mechanisms

  • Oxaloacetate accepts electrons from NADH, allowing metabolic intermediates to pass through the inner membrane, while alpha-ketoglutarate is exchanged for malate.

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