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Questions and Answers
Oxidizing agents can convert CO into CO2.
Oxidizing agents can convert CO into CO2.
True (A)
A reducing agent gets oxidized as it reacts.
A reducing agent gets oxidized as it reacts.
False (B)
If there are no changes in the oxidation state of the reactants or products of a particular reaction, that reaction is not a redox reaction.
If there are no changes in the oxidation state of the reactants or products of a particular reaction, that reaction is not a redox reaction.
True (A)
If something is oxidized, it is formally losing electrons.
If something is oxidized, it is formally losing electrons.
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If something is reduced, it is formally losing electrons.
If something is reduced, it is formally losing electrons.
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In the redox reaction (Fe3+) + Co2+ --> (Fe2+) + Co3+, Fe3+ is the reducing agent and Co2+ is the oxidizing agent.
In the redox reaction (Fe3+) + Co2+ --> (Fe2+) + Co3+, Fe3+ is the reducing agent and Co2+ is the oxidizing agent.
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How is hydrolysis performed on acetyl-CoA?
How is hydrolysis performed on acetyl-CoA?
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What happens in hydrolysis of ATP?
What happens in hydrolysis of ATP?
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What happens to Ethanol during reduction?
What happens to Ethanol during reduction?
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What happens to Pyruvate during oxidation?
What happens to Pyruvate during oxidation?
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What are some characteristics of anabolic processes?
What are some characteristics of anabolic processes?
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What are some characteristics of catabolic processes?
What are some characteristics of catabolic processes?
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What does hexokinase do in glycolysis?
What does hexokinase do in glycolysis?
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What does phosphoglucose isomerase do in glycolysis?
What does phosphoglucose isomerase do in glycolysis?
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What does phosphofructokinase do in glycolysis?
What does phosphofructokinase do in glycolysis?
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What does aldolase do in glycolysis?
What does aldolase do in glycolysis?
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What does glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase do in glycolysis?
What does glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase do in glycolysis?
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What does pyruvate kinase do in glycolysis?
What does pyruvate kinase do in glycolysis?
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The glycolytic enzyme _______ cleaves fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, yielding two _________.
The glycolytic enzyme _______ cleaves fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, yielding two _________.
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In the first reaction of glycolysis, glucose is converted to _________.
In the first reaction of glycolysis, glucose is converted to _________.
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What are the reactants to create 1 molecule of glucose from two pyruvate molecules via gluconeogenesis?
What are the reactants to create 1 molecule of glucose from two pyruvate molecules via gluconeogenesis?
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What are the catalytic coenzymes of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?
What are the catalytic coenzymes of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?
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What is the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?
What is the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?
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Study Notes
Redox Reactions
- Oxidizing agents can convert CO to CO2 by facilitating the oxidation of carbon.
- Reducing agents undergo oxidation and lose electrons during reactions.
- A reaction without changes in oxidation state is not a redox reaction.
- Oxidation is characterized by the loss of electrons.
- Reduction involves the gain of electrons.
- In the reaction (Fe3+) + Co2+ → (Fe2+) + Co3+, Fe3+ is the oxidizing agent, and Co2+ is the reducing agent.
Hydrolysis of Acetyl-CoA
- Hydrolysis occurs at the thioester bond, yielding an acetyl group and coenzyme A.
- Reaction example: CoA-S-C(=O)-CH3 → CoA-S-H + CH3CO.
Hydrolysis of ATP
- ATP hydrolysis results in the formation of ADP and decreases energy potential.
- The reaction is exergonic with a ΔG of -30.5 kJ/mol.
Ethanol and Reduction
- Reduction includes the addition of hydrogen (more H+), indicating increased electron density.
Pyruvate and Oxidation
- Oxidation denotes the removal of hydrogen (less H+), signifying a decrease in electron density.
Anabolic Processes
- Require energy input, typically from ATP.
- Use NADPH as an electron carrier.
- Involve the synthesis of macromolecules.
Catabolic Processes
- Convert fuel into cellular energy like ATP or ion gradients.
- Utilize NAD+ as an electron carrier.
- Break down macromolecules for energy.
Phosphoglycerate Mutase
- An intermediate in the phosphoglycerate mutase catalysis has two phosphate groups at carbon 2 and 3.
Donation of Phosphate to His
- 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate donates a phosphate group to the histidine residue in the phosphoglycerate mutase enzyme.
Pyruvate Products
- In aerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted to Acetyl-CoA.
- In anaerobic conditions in humans, pyruvate is reduced to lactate.
- In yeast, pyruvate undergoes fermentation to produce ethanol and CO2.
Glycolytic Enzymes
- Hexokinase phosphorylates glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.
- Phosphoglucose isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-phosphate.
- Phosphofructokinase generates fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
- Aldolase cleaves fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose phosphates.
- Triose phosphate isomerase interconverts three-carbon isomers.
- Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase produces a high-energy compound.
- Phosphoglycerate kinase generates the first ATP molecule in glycolysis.
- Phosphoglycerate mutase converts 3-phosphoglycerate into 2-phosphoglycerate.
- Enolase forms another high-energy compound.
- Pyruvate kinase generates another ATP molecule by converting phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate.
Glycolysis Control Points
- The main control point in glycolysis is step 3, regulated by ATP (negative) and AMP (positive).
- Steps 1, 3, and 10 are irreversible reactions.
Gluconeogenesis
- Requires 4 ATP, 2 GTP, and 2 NADH to synthesize glucose from two pyruvate molecules.
- Key regulatory compounds include ATP, citrate, and acetyl CoA.
- Step 8 serves as the main negative control point, inhibited by AMP, fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, and insulin.
- Conversion steps from pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate involve carboxylation, malate formation, and decarboxylation.
Krebs Cycle Insights
- Acetyl-CoA condenses with oxaloacetate to produce citrate, entering the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
- Reaction 1 is inhibited by citrate, while reaction 3 and reaction 4 are inhibited by NADH.
- ADP and Ca2+ serve as activators for reaction 3.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
- Complex I: NADH dehydrogenase, transferring electrons from NADH to ubiquinone.
- Complex II: Succinate dehydrogenase, donating electrons from succinate to ubiquinone.
- Complex III: Cytochrome c oxidoreductase, transferring electrons from ubiquinol to cytochrome c.
- Complex IV: Cytochrome c oxidase, facilitating electron transfer to O2.
- Only NADH transfers electrons from glycolysis to the ETC; both NADH and FADH2 contribute to the citric acid cycle and then to the ETC.
- The ETC produces water and ATP from the electrons carried by NADH and FADH2.
Hormonal Regulation
- Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a peptide hormone released from the small intestine.
- Acyl groups are activated by attachment to CoA (coenzyme A).
Transport Mechanisms
- Oxaloacetate accepts electrons from NADH, allowing metabolic intermediates to pass through the inner membrane, while alpha-ketoglutarate is exchanged for malate.
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