Buddhism in China: Historical Overview

Introduction

• Buddhism in China reaches back two thousand years
• Buddhism impacts Chinese intellectual and religious life
• It marks virtually all aspects of Chinese society and culture
• Buddhism transformed itself through the interaction with Chinese culture and philosophy
• Schools of thought emerged in China like Tiantai 天台, Huayan 華嚴, Pure Land 淨土, and Chan 禪
• Chinese Buddhism is a result of this change

Historical Overview

• Preparation: From Han to the Three Kingdoms 漢三國 and Western Jin 西晉 (2BCE-317)
• Domestication: Eastern Jin 東晉 to Northern and Southern dynasties 南北朝 (317-589)
• Independent Growth: The Sui and Tang dynasties 隋唐 (589-900)
• Appropriation and Syncretism: Song to Qing dynasty 宋元明清 dynasty (900-1911)
• Revival: from 1911 to the present day in Modern China

Time Period of Preparation (65-317)

• Includes Former Han 後漢 (25-220), Three Kingdoms (220-265), and Western Jin 西晉 (265-317) dynasties
• Buddhism introduced via the Silk Road from Central Asia during this time
• This introduction began around the Common Era
• Buddhist monks entering China were mostly from Central Asian kingdoms such as Parthia, Scythia, and Sogdiana
• These monks brought the Mahāyāna tradition, which was growing in popularity but still evolving

Challenges to This Period

• An Shigao 安世高 introduced Indian meditation techniques, like mindfulness of breath
• These techniques are similar to Daoist meditation
• Buddhist monks faced challenges from long-established Chinese intellectual and cultural traditions
• Buddhist renunciation practices such as celibacy and mendicancy did not fit with Chinese values
• Confucianism emphasized family life and societal responsibility, conflicting with Buddhist practices
• Chinese people were not allowed to become Buddhist monks during the Han dynasty

Buddhism Adapts within China

• Foreign Buddhist monks wore yellow robes, active mostly among foreign traders in cities like Luoyang and Chang'an
• By the 2nd century, Buddhism had spread from emperors to ordinary people
• The Houhanshu 《後漢書》recorded that an image of Buddha was placed in the imperial altar of the Han emperor
• Ordinary people were familiar with Buddhist teachings like no killing, celibacy/mendicancy, and terminologies such as Sramana and Buddha

Time Period of Domestication (317-589)

• Eastern Jin 東晉 to Northern and Southern dynasties 南北朝.
• It was a period of disunion and political fragmentation and significant societal change
• Non-Chinese tribes established kingdoms and ruled the north
• Chinese dynasties governed the south
• The time saw the translation of many Buddhist scriptures into Chinese
• Study groups emerged, focused on specific Buddhist texts or masters
• Chinese Buddhist scholars believe Buddhism integrated into Chinese culture by the end of this period

Internal Civil War

• Sixteen kingdoms were established in the north by five ethnic groups fighting for land and people
• War happened frequently in the north as kingdoms rapidly replaced each other
• Ordinary people suffered amid this chaos
• Chinese emperors in the south changed through four dynasties
• The civil unrest thus set the stage for the growth of Buddhism in China

Philosophical Adaptations

• Confucian ideology declined and freedom of thought prevailed during the Three Kingdoms
• Chinese intellectuals dissatisfied with Confucian classic learning shifted their focus to cosmological questions
• Metaphysical learning (Xuanxue 玄學) arose, interpreting the Laozi 《老子》and Zhouyi 《周易》
• Abstract philosophy became emphasized over politics
• Buddhist thought became influential and dominant

Intellectual Interest

• Buddhist study influenced intellectuals to study of the Prajñāpāramitā
• The philosophical similarities of these systems set the stage for Buddhism's growth in China

Non-Chinese Support

• Northern non-Chinese rulers adopted Buddhism as an alternate ideology
• Shile 石勒 employed the Buddhist monk Fo Tocheng (?-348) as his advisor
• Northern Wei emperors supported Buddhism and adopted it as their personal faith as they were ethic groups
• Yungang Caves 雲崗石窟 and Longmen Caves 龍門石窟 were built during this period

Later Chinese Rulers

• Many southern Chinese emperors supported Buddhism, including Emperor Wudi of Liang
• Emperor Wudi personally supported Buddhist development
• Buddhist practice of vegetarian diet started with Emperor Wudi of Liang in 511
• Emperor Wudi required all Buddhist clergy abstain from eating meat
• This started a tradition that continues to today

Notable Masters

• Native Chinese Buddhist masters fueled Buddhism's rapid growth
• Daoan 道安 and his disciple Huiyuan 慧遠 knew how to handle Chinese criticism
• Daoan established Buddhist communities for monks and nuns in China
• Huiyuan made Buddhism accepted by Chinese intellectuals
• Kumārajīva 鳩摩羅什 translated important Mahayana Buddhist texts
• The Lotus Sutra 法華經 translated by Kumarajiva is still very popular

Translations

• Many Buddhist scriptures become available, and the Indian Mahāyāna schools of thought are introduced by Kumārajīva and Paramārtha
• Kumārajīva translated and standardized Buddhist terminology
• He also introduced Madhyamaka teaching 中觀
• Kumārajīva’s translations formed the basis for the Chinese Sanlun 三論 School
• He created new transcriptions of names and standardized Buddhist technical terms with interpolated glosses.
• This leads to Buddhism representing a new way of thinking

Kumarajiva

• Educated Chinese disciples like Sengzhao 僧肇, Daosheng 道生, Daorong 道融, and Sengrui 僧叡.
• Passing down exegetical traditions that formed the foundation of East Asian Buddhism
• Paramārtha 真諦 (499-569) introduced Indian Yogācāra school of thought
• He translated works of great Indian philosophers Asanga 無著 and Vasubandhu 世親
• This school primarily analyzes the mind

Study Groups

• Many study groups formed, based on texts or particular teachers
• Prajñāpāramitā 般若波羅蜜多 literature attracted Chinese intellectuals
• Groups were formed dedicated to discussion of tathatā
• By the end of the Northern and Southern dynasties, Buddhism had fully integrated into Chinese culture
• The religion became an important part in the religious life of Chinese people

Time Period of Independent Growth (589-900)

• During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Buddhism reached its intellectual and monastic climax
• Buddhist religious beliefs and practices influenced all social classes
• Most Sui and Tang emperors supported Buddhism, although not always for religious reasons
• Wu Zetian 武則天, the woman emperor of the Tang dynasty, heavily supported Buddhism
• Buddhism provided additional legitimacy and support amid this time
• However, persecution of Buddhism occurred under Tang Wuzong

Unification

• The unification of China after a long period of separation provided peace and prosperity for Sui and Tang society
• Buddhist intellectual development resulted in the establishment of eight schools of thought
• Tiantai 天臺, Huayan 華嚴, Pure Land 净土, and Chan 禪宗 were more influenced by Chinese thought
• Buddhist philosophical development attracted the best minds of the Chinese people

Tiantai School

• Zhiyi 智顗 (538-597) was committed to establishing the basic tenets and theories of the Sui dynasty
• Zhuyi united practice with doctrine
• Zhanran 湛然 (711-782) revived it in mid Tang with the new idea of Buddha nature in inanimate things

Great Translator, Xuanzang

• Xuanzang 玄奘 (600-664 CE) translated 75 texts in 1,335 in a style known for its philological precision
• He received Imperial Support
• His translation committee was well-organized with many learned monks
• Xuanzang was a prolific traveler beyond fifty kingdoms on the Silk Road
• He composed the Datang Xiyuji 大唐西域記 (Record of the Western Regions) that detailed geography, politics, and the religious practices of neighboring western countries

Chan School

• Shenxiu 神秀 (606-706) established Chan as an official Buddhist school
• Huineng 惠能 (638-713) reformed Chan to create a Chinese school focused on daily practice
• Chan Buddhism became very influential, especially in intellectual circles
• It has greatly impacted art and literature in China, Korea, and Japan
• Shandao 善導 (613-681) popularized Pure Land Buddhist practices with paintings and preaching
• Fazang 法藏 (643-712) laid the foundation for Huayan teaching
• Zongmi 宗密 (780-841) further developed it
• Daoxuan 道宣 (596-667) was a scholar and historian who gave us important works on Buddhist history

Chan and Pure Land

• These were the most popular and influential Buddhist schools
• They advocated simple teachings with a focus on practice
• The Pure Land devoted to chanting Amita Buddha 阿彌陀佛’s name and rebirth in a western paradise, attracting ordinary adherents
• The Chan School promised enlightenment in this life to those with dedication, influencing Chinese intellectuals with its focus on the development of the mind and promoted simple living
• Both traditions were universalist and nonhierarchical

Tantric Buddhism

• The introduction of Tantric school occurred during Xuanzong's 唐玄宗 (685-762) with three Indian Buddhist masters
• Subhakarasimha 善無畏 (637-735), Vajrabodhi 金剛智 (671-741), and Amoghavajra 不空 (705-774)
• Emperor Wuzong 唐武宗 (814-846) in 845-846 persecuted Buddhism
• Over 40,000 temples were destroyed
• Around 260,500 monks and nuns were forced to return to lay life
• Chan and Pure Land Schools survived and thrived later in the Song dynasty
• Other doctrinal schools soon disappeared, and Buddhism started to decline

Chinese Society

• Buddhism began to grow among the ordinary Chinese in society
• Buddhist belief and practice found in every corner of the Tang dynasty
• The Buddha's finger was displayed displayed in the imperial palace and for the public for 7 times during the Tang Dynasty
• This caused a huge wave of Buddhist Belief and Practice
• Han Yu 韓俞 (769-824), the great Confucian scholar who apposes the emperor's worship of Buddha's relic
• Han wrote to the emperor claiming that Buddhism was a barbaric way that was introduced into China in the latter Han dynasty
• He suggested to the Emperor to abolish Buddhism

Yulanpeng

• Yulanpeng 盂蘭盆節 or Ghost Festival became a national event
• Celebrated every year on the 15th of July in the Chinese lunar calendar among all types of life
• Ancestor worship is central role in Chinese people
• Filial piety is the foundation of Chinese ethics in Chinese society and making offerings to the dead relatives is part of the filial duty for all Chinese
• Rituals involve the offering of a gift to the samgha and the participation of monks and nuns

Public Figures

• As Buddhism grew, more lectures and event were performed
• Many Buddhas and Bodhisattvas became popular gods
• Avalokitesvara is known as Guanyin who assists hurting people
• Ksitigarbha is known as Dizang
• Buddhism became more influential and had penetrated into Chinese ordinary society so it influenced many aspects of Chinese culture

Time Appropriation of Era

• During the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties 宋元明清 (900-1911) Buddhist practices and permeation increased into ordinary Chinese society
• Buddhism declined on the level of doctrinal development particularly after the Song Dynasty

Confucianism

• Buddhism and Daoism philosophical teachings were absorbed and involved into a vast scholastic system
• Confucianism took over as the main intellectual influence in society
• Chinese society became thoroughly Confucianized
• National examinations 可舉制度 were used to select officials

Neo-Confuianism

• Confucian scholars revived Confucianism by absorbing Buddhist and Daoist ideas
• It's called Neo-Confucianism
• The official orthodoxy occurred with an emphasis on the Confucian classics
• Interpretation of the Confucian classics became the only validated and validated for the state exams
• Examinations were the way into the public service office
• The family and clan system was typically with Confucian code of behavior, with was propagated throughout the population
• Wang Yangming 王陽明(1472-1529), a well-known Confucian of Ming Dynasty learned Buddhism and shifted the focus of Confucian discourse
• In so doing, the focus changed from principles from the power of mind, which is an especially strong idea from Buddhist scholars

Decline

• Buddhism declined steadily in intellectual creativity
• Chan and Pure Land Schools flourished
• However, at the grass-roots level, Buddhism flourished in countless forms of popular devotion, and its influence on influenced literature and visual art
• Buddhist culture developed
• Woodblock printing 雕版印刷 of Buddhism grew
• Tang Dynasty invented but popularized in Song Dynasty.
• Technology enabled swift printing of volumes.

Ming and Qing Dynasties

• Intellectual creativity declined and Buddhism stagnated
• Buddhist concepts of Karma, retribution, as well as the existence of heavens, hells, deities, and spirits, had become deeply integrated into popular belief

Revival

• Chinese elite lead it with an aim to reform China and could not find anything new and stimulating ideas from Confucianism and Daoism
• Liang Qichao 梁啟超 pointed out there was a dormant current in the Qing Dynasty

Intellectual Interest

• Yang Wenhui's 楊文會 led Many politicians, thinkers, academicians, scholars, and studied Buddhist studies
• Grand Master Taixu 太虛大師 (1890-1947) educated Yang Wenhui's students
• The father of modern Chinese Buddhism account of his great contribution to the revival of it both in creative ideas and in promotional movements
• Master Taixu taught a group of young Buddhist Monks and they played vital roles in the of Buddhism's revival

Taixu's Visit to Europe

• Taixu traveled to various places and his reform was considered a failure because of time and other factors
• Buddhist education reform was successful
• Master Taixu started Humanistic Buddhism, which would lead to being the mainstream in both in China and abroad

Modernization

• Master Yinshun 印順法師 revised the concept and term as Renjianfojiao 人間佛教 for a modern society
• There were three kinds of practices
• Pure Land Practice
• Chan practice with a focus of mind
• Tantric practice with recitation of mantras

Buddhist School

• Eight different schools in China
• Chinese schools Tian Tai, Hua Yen, Pure Land, Chan
• Indian schools San Lun, Yogacara, Mizong, and Luzong

Tradition of exegesis

• Represent doctrinal and or exegetical traditions
• Introduced by the great translator Kumarajiva and by the Mahayana sutras
• Kumarajiva attracted gifted monks such as Seng Zhao to explain the concepts of Buddhism
• tradition culminated with the formation of Chinese Sanlun

Traditions

• Sanlun's main doctrine said that all phenomena disappeared by virtue of their relationship

Yogacara

• Paramartha introduced the early Indian Yogacara school of thought
• Xuanzang completed the tradition and introduced it to China
• Yogacara know as the Dharma Characteristics or Consciousness Only
• All Doctrines are made of consciousness only and other natures
• Mahayana were created first India and then after to China including the doctrinal developments

Chinese Creation

• Tiantai 天臺宗,Huayan 華嚴宗, Pure Land 淨土宗,Chan 禪宗 were created in China without Indian counter parts
• Although there is a strong tradition of meditation however there is not a Chan school
• Other schools did not have three names, Tian Tai, Huayan, Pure Land

Tiantai School

• Master Zhiyi resided on Mt. Tinati and create a comprehensive interpretation of the school
• named lotus school
• Zhiyi integrated the meaning of Buddhism from the perspective of Lotus Sutra
• Philosophy centered on reality, and the middle truth was in the basis on the two truths from Nagarjuna treatises
• Three truths; Ultimates, provisional and middle
• He also used the reality theory which become the Tinati philosophy

Hauyan school

• Based on the Huayan Jing
• the philosophy of manifestations and one principle
• there are encounters of both Buddhism and Chinese philosophy in world view,
• Huayan developed by Chinese patriarchs in history
• Fazang codification of teaching

Shan Buddhism

• It has been influential over Chinese citizens for the elite
• Chan as meditation has been created in China from the very beginning
• It became a distinct school of thought in the 8th century.

Important Figures

• Bodhidharma created and introduced Chan in China
• Daoxin and Hongren created many crowds
• They two Masters stayed on the mountain so they create a few famous followers
• Xiu z teaching prospered in Tang and Hongen taught in South China
• Huiang advocated sudden enrichment

Huineng

• Hineng tradition has split sections after the 10th century
• Xiu did not come successful after the persecution by Wu
• He advocated sudden enrichment
• Huineng said meditation can occur during anytime as long as someone can concentrate.
• The mind is unlimited

Chan in Song Dynasty

• There were new developments of the Chan buddhism
• Chanamasters have advocated comintation or recital
• Chan masters have created a dialogue called Gongan
• Zonggao has created a method by ponding over a critic phrase and it has went overseas to Korea and other countries

Pure Land School

• Most popular School in China
• Although the school back to the Huiuan
• The practice is on reciting Amita Buddha Daozhou developed a school on teachings

Pure Land

• Buddha have created a pure land for recitation
• The teaching focused on the concentration of mind

Combined Teachings

• Shan and Huanyan were combined for philosophical reason
• they combined chantings and buddhist.
• Gave rise to great thoughts, gave them huge impacts

Conclusion

• Buddhism has been in China for 2,000 and has been integrated within the three systems
• Pure Land and Chan has both spread in Chinese history so now can say it's home to Mahayana buddhism