Untitled Quiz

Study Notes

Biotechnology uses living organisms or their components to make useful products.
Examples include: genetic engineering, fermentation, vaccine production, and enzyme production.

CRISPR is a gene-editing technology that acts like molecular scissors.
It uses the Cas9 enzyme to cut DNA at specific locations.
Allows precise modification of genes.
Risks: Off-target effects (unintended DNA modifications), potential ecological impacts, and ethical concerns about human germline editing.

Genetic Engineering: Directly manipulating an organism's genes to introduce desired traits.
Recombinant DNA Technology: Combining DNA from different sources to create organisms with new genetic combinations.
Factors Driving Modified Crop Adoption:
- Insecticides/Insect Resistance: Crops produce their own pesticides, reducing chemical spraying.
- Herbicide Resistance: Crops tolerate herbicides, allowing better weed control.
Rewards vs. Risks:
- Transgenic Salmon: Faster growth rate but concerns about ecological impact.
- Featherless Chicken: Easier processing but animal welfare concerns.
GMO Concerns:
- Environmental impact, gene transfer to wild species, food safety, and biodiversity loss.

Treat vs. Prevent and Cure:
- Treatment: Manage symptoms.
- Prevention: Stop disease before it occurs.
- Cure: Eliminate disease completely.
Applications:
- Diabetes: Synthetic insulin production.
- Human Growth Hormone: Treatment for growth disorders.
- Gene Therapy: Modifying genes to treat diseases. Poor success due to immune responses, targeting difficulties, and complex genetic diseases.
- Genetic Testing: Parental carrier testing, prenatal diagnosis, and predictive testing for late-onset conditions.

Humans share 99.9% of their DNA sequences.
0.1% variation makes each person unique.
STRs (Short Tandem Repeats): Repeated DNA sequences that vary between individuals. Used for identification.
DNA Fingerprinting:
- Pros: Highly accurate, small sample needed, long-term stability.
- Cons: Cost, privacy concerns, processing time.

Heredity: Transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
Dominant vs. Recessive Traits:
- Dominant: Expressed with only one copy.
- Recessive: Expressed only with two copies.
Test-cross: Crossing with homozygous recessive to determine genotype.
Pedigrees: Family trees showing inheritance patterns.
Incomplete Dominance: Neither allele is completely dominant.
Codominance: Both alleles are expressed equally.
Polygenic Traits: Influenced by multiple genes.
Additive Traits: Genes have a cumulative effect.
Pleiotropy: One gene affects multiple traits (e.g., Marfan syndrome).
Phenotypes: Observable characteristics.
Dihybrid: Cross involving two traits.
Independent Assortment: Random separation of different gene pairs.
Linked Genes: Genes close together on the same chromosome.

Critical Features: Pure-breeding plants, controlled breeding, statistical analysis.
Important Ideas:
- Traits are controlled by factors (genes).
- Factors come in pairs.
- Factors separate during gamete formation.
Law of Segregation: Allele pairs separate during gamete formation, each gamete receives one allele.

Observed Patterns: Variation within species, fossil evidence, geographic distribution.
Origin of Species: Common descent, natural selection, gradual change.

Mutations: Random genetic changes, source of new alleles. Can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies.
- Founder Effect: Small group establishes a new population.
- Bottleneck Effect: Population severely reduced.
Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations through migration and interbreeding.
Natural Selection:
- Conditions: Variation exists, traits are heritable, differential reproduction.
- Fitness Elements: Survival, reproduction, resource acquisition.
Sexual Selection: Mate choice and competition for mates.

Fossil Record: Radiometric dating, fossilization, missing links show transitions.
Biogeography: Geographic distribution of species (Example: Marsupial distribution).
Comparative Anatomy/Embryology:
- Homologous Structures: Same origin, different functions.
- Vestigial Structures: Reduced, non-functional.
- Convergent Evolution: Similar traits in unrelated species.
Molecular Biology: DNA/protein similarities and genetic code universality.
Laboratory/Field Studies: Observable evolution and experimental evidence.