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Questions and Answers
What is the primary purpose of biotechnology?
What is the primary purpose of biotechnology?
Which step in biotechnology involves the use of restriction enzymes?
Which step in biotechnology involves the use of restriction enzymes?
What is a major risk associated with the CRISPR gene-editing technology?
What is a major risk associated with the CRISPR gene-editing technology?
Which of the following describes recombinant DNA technology?
Which of the following describes recombinant DNA technology?
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What is a potential concern regarding genetically modified organisms (GMOs)?
What is a potential concern regarding genetically modified organisms (GMOs)?
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What distinguishes a dominant trait from a recessive trait?
What distinguishes a dominant trait from a recessive trait?
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Which type of selection would favor individuals at both extremes of a trait?
Which type of selection would favor individuals at both extremes of a trait?
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What part of Darwin's theory contributed to the understanding of shared characteristics among species?
What part of Darwin's theory contributed to the understanding of shared characteristics among species?
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What is the primary challenge associated with gene therapy?
What is the primary challenge associated with gene therapy?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of DNA fingerprinting?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of DNA fingerprinting?
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In a test-cross, which type of individual is used to determine the genotype of an unknown organism?
In a test-cross, which type of individual is used to determine the genotype of an unknown organism?
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What is a characteristic feature of polygenic traits?
What is a characteristic feature of polygenic traits?
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Which mechanism of evolution describes changes in allele frequencies due to random sampling effects?
Which mechanism of evolution describes changes in allele frequencies due to random sampling effects?
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Which of these is NOT a method of genetic testing?
Which of these is NOT a method of genetic testing?
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What does the Law of Segregation state about alleles?
What does the Law of Segregation state about alleles?
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Study Notes
Biotechnology Definition and Examples
- Biotechnology uses living organisms or their components to make useful products.
- Examples include: genetic engineering, fermentation, vaccine production, and enzyme production.
Important Processes in Biotechnology
- Chop: Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences.
- Amplify: PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) makes multiple copies of DNA.
- Insert: Vectors like plasmids introduce DNA into host cells.
- Grow: Modified organisms are cultured to produce desired products.
CRISPR
- CRISPR is a gene-editing technology that acts like molecular scissors.
- It uses the Cas9 enzyme to cut DNA at specific locations.
- Allows precise modification of genes.
- Risks: Off-target effects (unintended DNA modifications), potential ecological impacts, and ethical concerns about human germline editing.
Agriculture
- Genetic Engineering: Directly manipulating an organism's genes to introduce desired traits.
- Recombinant DNA Technology: Combining DNA from different sources to create organisms with new genetic combinations.
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Factors Driving Modified Crop Adoption:
- Insecticides/Insect Resistance: Crops produce their own pesticides, reducing chemical spraying.
- Herbicide Resistance: Crops tolerate herbicides, allowing better weed control.
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Rewards vs. Risks:
- Transgenic Salmon: Faster growth rate but concerns about ecological impact.
- Featherless Chicken: Easier processing but animal welfare concerns.
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GMO Concerns:
- Environmental impact, gene transfer to wild species, food safety, and biodiversity loss.
Human Health
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Treat vs. Prevent and Cure:
- Treatment: Manage symptoms.
- Prevention: Stop disease before it occurs.
- Cure: Eliminate disease completely.
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Applications:
- Diabetes: Synthetic insulin production.
- Human Growth Hormone: Treatment for growth disorders.
- Gene Therapy: Modifying genes to treat diseases. Poor success due to immune responses, targeting difficulties, and complex genetic diseases.
- Genetic Testing: Parental carrier testing, prenatal diagnosis, and predictive testing for late-onset conditions.
Forensic Science
- Humans share 99.9% of their DNA sequences.
- 0.1% variation makes each person unique.
- STRs (Short Tandem Repeats): Repeated DNA sequences that vary between individuals. Used for identification.
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DNA Fingerprinting:
- Pros: Highly accurate, small sample needed, long-term stability.
- Cons: Cost, privacy concerns, processing time.
Key Definitions
- Heredity: Transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
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Dominant vs. Recessive Traits:
- Dominant: Expressed with only one copy.
- Recessive: Expressed only with two copies.
- Test-cross: Crossing with homozygous recessive to determine genotype.
- Pedigrees: Family trees showing inheritance patterns.
- Incomplete Dominance: Neither allele is completely dominant.
- Codominance: Both alleles are expressed equally.
- Polygenic Traits: Influenced by multiple genes.
- Additive Traits: Genes have a cumulative effect.
- Pleiotropy: One gene affects multiple traits (e.g., Marfan syndrome).
- Phenotypes: Observable characteristics.
- Dihybrid: Cross involving two traits.
- Independent Assortment: Random separation of different gene pairs.
- Linked Genes: Genes close together on the same chromosome.
Mendel's Research
- Critical Features: Pure-breeding plants, controlled breeding, statistical analysis.
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Important Ideas:
- Traits are controlled by factors (genes).
- Factors come in pairs.
- Factors separate during gamete formation.
- Law of Segregation: Allele pairs separate during gamete formation, each gamete receives one allele.
Using Punnett Squares
- Tool for predicting offspring genotypes.
- Shows all possible combinations of gametes.
- Helps calculate the probability of traits.
Darwin's Contributions
- Observed Patterns: Variation within species, fossil evidence, geographic distribution.
- Origin of Species: Common descent, natural selection, gradual change.
Evolution Mechanisms
- Mutations: Random genetic changes, source of new alleles. Can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
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Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies.
- Founder Effect: Small group establishes a new population.
- Bottleneck Effect: Population severely reduced.
- Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations through migration and interbreeding.
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Natural Selection:
- Conditions: Variation exists, traits are heritable, differential reproduction.
- Fitness Elements: Survival, reproduction, resource acquisition.
- Sexual Selection: Mate choice and competition for mates.
Types of Selection
- Directional: Favors one extreme.
- Stabilizing: Favors intermediate traits.
- Disruptive: Favors both extremes.
Evidence for Evolution
- Fossil Record: Radiometric dating, fossilization, missing links show transitions.
- Biogeography: Geographic distribution of species (Example: Marsupial distribution).
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Comparative Anatomy/Embryology:
- Homologous Structures: Same origin, different functions.
- Vestigial Structures: Reduced, non-functional.
- Convergent Evolution: Similar traits in unrelated species.
- Molecular Biology: DNA/protein similarities and genetic code universality.
- Laboratory/Field Studies: Observable evolution and experimental evidence.
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