Brain Development and Plasticity Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What does it mean that we are 'born unfinished' in the context of brain development?

  • We are unable to learn new things after childhood.
  • Our skills are predetermined at birth.
  • We have the same number of neurons as adults.
  • Our brains are flexible and ready to adapt to our environment. (correct)

    • Why is the number of connections in the brain considered more important than the number of neurons?

  • Neurons do not interact without connections. (correct)
  • Connections are fixed and unchangeable.
  • Neurons die off if not connected.
  • Connections determine intelligence.

    • What happens to brain connections that are not used according to expected environmental interactions?

  • They strengthen.
  • They multiply.
  • They remain stagnant.
  • They are pruned away. (correct)

    • In what way does an adolescent brain differ from a child's brain?

    <p>It is more sensitive and less inhibited.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by the term 'live wired' in the context of human brain flexibility?

    <p>The brain remains adaptable throughout life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does neural plasticity mean in the context of adulthood?

    <p>It continues to allow for new connections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do life experiences impact our brain according to Eagleman's claims?

    <p>They shape the brain by developing certain connections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What reflects the relationship between brain changes and personal identity?

    <p>Brain changes can significantly alter who you are.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the limbic system?

    <p>Processing of rewards and motivations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the limbic system is primarily responsible for fear memory?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is associated with the basal ganglia?

    <p>Motor preparation timing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the hippocampus have in the limbic system?

    <p>Spatial memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cingulate cortex is important for which cognitive function?

    <p>Quick decision making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of the fornix in the limbic system?

    <p>Connecting various nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following functions is NOT associated with the basal ganglia?

    <p>Memory processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is involved in recollective memory?

    <p>Septum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes passive learning compared to active learning?

    <p>Passive learning occurs without interaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following components is essential for meaningful learning retention?

    <p>Organization of information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the retrieval process in memory entail?

    <p>Finding something in memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is NOT considered a strategy for meaningful learning?

    <p>Automaticity through massed practice.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of plasticity in the brain refer to?

    <p>The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT related to brain plasticity?

    <p>The genetic makeup of the individual.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of learning practice is likely to lead to automaticity?

    <p>Spaced practice over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does elaboration play in learning?

    <p>Elaboration enhances understanding through prior knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do demyelinating diseases have on neural conduction?

    <p>They reduce or block conduction due to current leakage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the release of neurotransmitters at the axon terminal?

    <p>A depolarization of the axon terminal caused by an action potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels play in neurotransmitter release?

    <p>They open in response to depolarization, allowing Ca²⁺ to enter the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is located between the nodes on an axon?

    <p>Myelin sheath</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of current leakage due to degeneration of the myelin sheath?

    <p>Decreased efficiency in neural signal conduction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the synaptic vesicles when Ca²⁺ enters the axon terminal?

    <p>They fuse with the presynaptic membrane to release neurotransmitters.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion is primarily responsible for initiating the action potential in the axon terminal?

    <p>Na⁺</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Node of Ranvier in neurotransmission?

    <p>To facilitate rapid signal conduction between myelinated segments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of sensory isolation in early childhood development?

    <p>Lagging motor and intellectual performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable finding from René Spitz's studies on children in different care environments?

    <p>Social interactions are critical for child development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age did the differences in development between babies raised in an orphanage and those in a prison nursery become apparent?

    <p>At 1 year</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which environmental condition was linked to a greater number of cognitive connections and protection against disease?

    <p>Consistent social interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary difference between the two groups of babies in Spitz's study?

    <p>The amount of sensory stimulation received</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the cognitive performance of orphanage babies compare to that of nursery babies after one year?

    <p>They lagged in motor and intellectual skills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological stressor is commonly associated with the effects of prolonged separation in children?

    <p>Elevated cortisol levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the condition of babies in the orphanage as observed by Spitz?

    <p>They were cut off from human contact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptors mediate rapid responses by altering ion flow across membranes?

    <p>Ionotropic receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptors are associated with slower responses and may modulate ion channels?

    <p>Metabotropic receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neurotransmitter activating systems are primarily responsible for what function within the central nervous system?

    <p>Coordinating wide areas of the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of ionotropic receptors?

    <p>Directly linked to ion channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In cognitive neuroscience, why is the differentiation of methods important?

    <p>Each method has distinct spatial and temporal resolutions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurotransmitter system is least likely to be involved in activating widespread areas of the brain?

    <p>Epinephrine (NE)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a function associated with metabotropic receptors?

    <p>Mediating rapid signal transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is NOT mentioned as part of the activating systems within the central nervous system?

    <p>Glutamate (Glu)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cognitive Neuroscience - Fall 2024, Week 2

    • The brain is "unfinished" at birth and continues to develop and change throughout life.
    • Development occurs through neural connections, not necessarily the number of neurons.
    • Brain development is influenced by the expected environment.
    • Adolescent brains are more sensitive but less inhibited than child brains.
    • Brain plasticity continues throughout adulthood.
    • Changes in the brain affect who a person is and vice-versa.

    Cognitive-Behavioral Brain Reserve (CBBR)

    • Brain structure and function are shaped by environmental experiences.
    • CBBR acts as a protective reserve against insults, injuries, diseases, and disorders, particularly age-related deterioration.
    • A "better brain bank" provides greater resilience against risks and disorders.

    Screen Time and Proximal Separation

    • Screen time and other forms of overstimulation or understimulation can have negative effects on brain development.
    • Proximal separation can negatively impact the developing nervous system.

    Sensory Isolation in Development

    • Spitz's studies in 1940s Hungary demonstrated the importance of social interaction for child development.
    • Two groups of children were observed: one in an orphanage and one in a prison nursery.
    • Children in the orphanage, lacking human contact, exhibited slower motor and intellectual development and were more susceptible to infections.
    • Children in the prison nursery, who had consistent parental contact and interactions, demonstrated normal development.

    Emotional Deprivation in Infancy (Dr. René Spitz, 1952)

    • Spitz's studies highlighted the significant impact of emotional deprivation in infancy.

    Developmental Effects of Aversive Environments

    • Brain plasticity means the brain constantly changes with experience, internal and external.
    • Early environmental effects profoundly influence brain development.
    • The timing of adoption is critical for Romanian orphans in the 1980s.
    • Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) increase the risk of addiction, suicide, and affect frontal-lobe development and function.
    • Generational effects arise from the lasting impact of these experiences on later generations.
    • Brain activity in abused children is different than that of normal children

    Transformational Education

    • Transformational education focuses on active learning through student-centered, problem-based, exploratory, experiential, and collaborative interactions.
    • This educational approach facilitates paradigm shifts in thinking for personal growth and professional development.
    • It enhances students' self-efficacy and mastery of concepts, leading to positive learning outcomes.
    • Knowledge gained through this type of education can be applied beyond the classroom in various settings.

    Active vs. Passive Learning

    • Active learning involves engagement and participation, while passive learning does not.
    • These contrasting approaches to learning affect how information is processed, retained, and recalled.

    Human Memory

    • Memory is an individual's ability to store and retrieve information.
    • Memory storage involves putting information into memory.
    • Memory retrieval involves finding information in memory.

    How Memory Works

    • Sensory register is the first stage of memory.
    • Sensory input can be lost if not attended to.
    • Short-term (working) memory is involved with attention.
    • Long-term memory includes encoding and retrieval.

    Meaningful Learning & Memory Retention

    • Effective learning relies on connecting new information with existing knowledge.
    • Organization, visual imagery, elaboration, and practice consolidate understanding and improve memory retention.

    10 Principles of Brain Plasticity

    • Brain plasticity is a common aspect of all nervous systems and is conserved across species and time.
    • Plasticity can be studied on multiple levels.
    • Plasticity occurs due to experiences, which interact to affect the brain's structures and functions and are also time-dependent.
    • Relevance, intensity, and frequency of experience greatly influence plasticity.
    • Maladaptive effects of experience/training can also occur.

    Applying Principles of Neuroplasticity

    • Brain growth and change are affected by different experiences.
    • Experience-expectant plasticity is the "rough draft" of brain development and describes foundational universal experiences.
    • Experience-dependent plasticity incorporates specific individual life experiences.
    • These types of changes and experiences interact. - There are numerous degrees of intensity and frequency of these experiences. - There are significant time-dependent exposure parameters within these experiences.

    Misperceptions about Learning

    • Misconceptions related to learning, like the illusion of knowing and comparing print and digital methods.
    • Preferences do not equal performance.
    • Understanding the Dunning-Kruger Effect is necessary for learning.

    Cognitive Neuroscience History

    • Cognitive neuroscience explores how the brain enables the mind.
    • Historical evidence from patients with brain lesions and animal investigations contributed to our understanding of the brain-mind connection.
    • Modern research methods use to detect changes in biological activity of various parts of the brain.

    Aims of Cognitive Neuroscience

    • Cognitive neuroscience studies how the brain enables the mind.
    • It examines the relationship between brain structure, function, and cognition.
    • The field explores mechanisms related to cognition and behaviour.
    • The field examines factors that potentially alter the mind and brain.

    Study of Brain-Mind Connection

    • Brain activity creates the mind.
    • Studying patients with brain lesions provides evidence.
    • Scientific investigations with healthy people and animals contribute to knowledge.

    The Scientific Method

    • Observations and data lead to hypothesis formulation.
    • Predictions follow from hypothesis.
    • Experiments are conducted to test predictions.
    • Data analysis refines or confirms hypotheses.
    • Evidence supports or refutes hypothesis leading to refining/developing theories.
    • Variables are classified as independent or dependent.

    Modern Research Methods

    • Methods of investigating brain function include measuring changes in biological activity, particularly in brain regions, neurons, grey and white matter structures.

    Mind-Body Problem

    • The mind-body problem examines how physiological processes influence perceptual experience.
    • The "easy problem" of consciousness involves correlating physiological responses to experiences, while the "hard problem" involves understanding how these responses cause subjective experiences.

    Nervous System

    • Questions related to the nervous system include identifying the organizing principles of the brain, analyzing emergent properties from the nervous system, and relating these principles & properties to behavior.

    The Human Brain

    • The brain has three main divisions: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
    • The forebrain is associated with higher functions, the midbrain with regulatory and movement functions, and the hindbrain with basic functions.
    • Directions for locating structures inside the brain, such as Rostral, Caudal, Dorsal, Ventral
    • Brain divisions, such as lobes are identified by cross-sections and imaging analysis.

    White Matter and Grey Matter

    • White matter serves as a communication network.
    • Grey matter processes signals and transmits instructions.
    • These two matter types are important elements in the brain and spinal cord.

    Ventricles of the Human Brain

    • The brains' ventricles are fluid-filled cavities that support proper brain function.

    Central Nervous System

    The central nervous system has many functions, including integration of information, learning, memory, and coordination of activity.

    Telencephalon

    The telencephalon contains four lobes, a limbic system, basal ganglia, and associated landmarks.

    Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres

    • The four lobes—frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital—have distinct functions and divisions.

    Topographical Memory

    • Brain regions representing body parts or other data often map spatially onto the brain, which can adjust based on input and activity.

    Limbic System and Basal Ganglia

    The Limbic system helps regulate motivated behaviors, while the basal ganglia helps regulate movement.

    Limbic System

    • The limbic system's structures help with emotional regulation, memory formation, and reward/motivation processing.

    Basal Ganglia

    • The basal ganglia has a group of interconnected nuclei and plays a role in action selection, action gating, reward-based learning, motor preparation, timing, task switching, and more.

    Diencephalon

    • The diencephalon relays and processes most sensory information (except smell).
    • Structures such as the thalamus, hypothalamus, and other parts have complex connections and functions.

    Hypothalamus

    • Regulates essential body functions like temperature, hunger, thirst, and plays a main role in the endocrine system.

    Mesencephalon (Midbrain)

    Structures in the midbrain are responsible for sensory input and motor output.

    Myelencephalon/Metencephalon

    • The myelencephalon (medulla) and metencephalon (pons & cerebellum) play key roles in basic functions like controlling breathing, heart rate, and balance.

    Divisions of the Nervous System

    • The central nervous system (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord.
    • The peripheral nervous system (PNS): Communicates with the CNS and with the rest of the body.
    • The somatic nervous system (SNS): Controls voluntary movements.
    • The autonomic nervous system (ANS): Controls involuntary functions.
      • The sympathetic nervous system: Associated with the "fight-or-flight" response.
      • The parasympathetic nervous system: Associated with the "rest-and-digest" response.

    Peripheral Nervous System

    • The somatic nervous system involves sensory and motor neurons, providing conscious control over organs. The ANS regulates non-conscious functions.

    PNS: Autonomic Nervous System

    • The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work together to regulate body processes, including arousal and rest, using different neurotransmitters.

    Components of the Nervous System (Neurons)

    • Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system and analyze and transmit information.
    • There are 86+ billion neurons in the human nervous system that communicate with each other.
    • The balance in the system is important for behavior.

    Components of the Nervous System (Glial Cells)

    • Glial cells provide support, insulation, and nourishment to the brain.

    Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

    • The BBB protects the brain from substances in the blood.
    • It allows small, lipophilic molecules to pass but blocks other substances, protecting the brain.

    The Nervous System

    • Functions are integrated across multiple levels, and emergent properties arise from the complex interaction of different components.

    Signals in a Multipolar Neuron

    • Graded potentials are small changes in the membrane's electrical potential.
    • Excitatory PSPs depolarize the membrane, while inhibitory PSPs hyperpolarize it.
    • Action potentials conduct signals non-decrementally.

    Resting Membrane Potential

    • The resting membrane potential is the membrane's electrical potential when the neuron is not active.
    • It is maintained by the concentration gradients of ions and the selective permeability of the membrane to these ions.

    Electrical Signals: Ion Movement

    • The resting membrane potential is primarily determined by ion concentrations, ion gradients, and membrane permeability.
    • Gated channels can be chemically or voltage-gated.

    Neurotransmission

    • Neurotransmission is the process of transmitting signals between neurons.
    • Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses.

    Generation of an Action Potential

    • Action potentials are brief electrical signals traveling along neurons.
    • Sodium ions move across channels to trigger action potentials.

    Action Potential

    • Depolarization shifts the membrane potential from resting potential to threshold, triggering an action potential.
    • The action potential phases include an overshoot phase (membrane potential higher than 0 mV), repolarization phase (membrane potential is lower than 0 mV), and an undershoot phase (membrane potential below resting potential).
    • All gated channels close, and resting potential returns.

    Propagation of an Action Potential

    • Action potentials travel along an axon, triggering a new potential in adjoining sections down the axon's length.

    Absolute and Relative Refractory Period

    • The absolute refractory period describes the time interval after an action potential when a new one cannot be generated.
    • The relative refractory period describes the time interval after an action potential when only a larger stimulus can trigger another action potential.

    Synaptic Communication

    • An action potential depolarizes the presynaptic neuron's axon terminal.
    • The influx of calcium triggers neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft.
    • Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, initiating a response.

    Termination of Neurotransmitter Activity

    • Neurotransmitter activity ceases by diffusion, enzymatic breakdown, and reuptake into the pre-synaptic cell.

    Seven Steps in Neurotransmitter Action

    • Neurotransmitters are synthesized, stored, released into the synapse, received, and reabsorbed into the presynaptic cell or degraded.

    Mechanisms of Drug Action

    • Drugs can be agonists (increasing neurotransmission) or antagonists (decreasing neurotransmission).
    • They achieve these effects via numerous mechanisms, including altering synthesis, release, and reuptake of neurotransmitters; affecting receptors or postsynaptic effects.

    Neurotransmitter Receptors

    • Ionotropic receptors cause fast responses by directly changing ion conductance.
    • Metabotropic receptors trigger slower, longer-lasting changes via second messengers.

    Ionotropic Receptor

    • Ionotropic receptors have a pore that opens or closes when a neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, changing ion conductance.

    Metabotropic Receptor

    • Metabotropic receptors activate G proteins.

    Neurotransmitter Activating Systems

    • Activating systems involve neural circuits that coordinate brain regions for a specific function using particular neurotransmitters.

    Activating Systems (Cholinergic)

    • The cholinergic system affects the waking electroencephalographic pattern and is involved in memory.

    Activating Systems (Dopaminergic)

    • The dopaminergic system for motor behaviour is associated with Parkinson's disease and dyskinesia.
    • The dopaminergic system for pleasure and reward is involved in several aspects of behavioural addiction.

    Activating Systems (Noradrenergic and Serotonergic)

    • Noradrenergic and serotonergic systems regulate emotional tone, potentially involved in disorders like depression and mania.

    Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience

    • This interdisciplinary field combines methodologies from diverse disciplines to study how the brain contributes to cognition.
    • Investigative methods differ in their spatial resolution and temporal resolution.
    • These differences affect the types of insights that can be drawn.

    Controlling Neural Activity With Light

    • Optogenetics uses light to manipulate cell activity in living tissue (primarily neuroscience research).

    Single Cell Recordings

    • Single-cell recordings use electrodes to measure the electrical activity of individual neurons.
    • This method is used to study animal behavior and responses.

    Brain Imaging Techniques

    • Brain imaging techniques include CT, PET, MRI, and DTI, providing insights into brain structure, function, and activity.
    • These computer-based methods provide high spatial and temporal resolution.

    X-Ray Imaging (CT)

    • CT scans use X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain.
    • This method offers a quick, static view of brain structures.

    Dynamic Brain Imaging (PET)

    • PET scans use radioactive substances to measure metabolic activity, like oxygen use in neurons.
    • This provides a way to assess brain activity without a surgical procedure.

    PET Scanner and Image

    • PET scanners utilize radioactive substances to produce images of brain activity.
    • The images show active areas, based on tracer uptake

    Procedure of Subtraction

    • This method is used to identify brain regions active during a particular task by comparing brain activity during baseline and experimental states.

    Dynamic Brain Imaging (MRI)

    • MRI uses magnetic fields and radio waves to image brain structure and function, providing higher resolution than CT.
    • fMRI superimposes MRI scans onto brain activity.

    Dynamic Brain Imaging; DTI

    • DTI is an MRI method to image white matter pathways by analyzing the movement of water molecules.

    Dynamic Brain Imaging; fMRI

    • fMRI detects changes in blood flow (BOLD) related to neural activity.

    Imaging Changes in Brain Activity

    • Changes in fMRI signal intensity can be recorded for different states across time.
    • This method measures brain activity through blood flow changes during neural activity.

    Comparing Brain-Imaging Techniques

    • Comparisons between X-ray, PET, and MRI methodologies provide clear distinctions and advantages of each.

    Toward Multimodal Atlases of the Brain

    • MRI images show brain development.

    Experience, Perception, and Reality

    • How does experience/culture modify brain development? These experiences/culture modify how individual brains perceive the world.

    Brain Development and Plasticity

    • The development of the brain occurs in phases.
    • Environmental factors have a profound impact on shaping brain structures.

    Approaches to Studying Brain Development

    • Specific procedures are vital in conducting brain development investigations.

    Environmental Influences on Brain Organization

    • Brain development and behavior can vary between animals/humans that grow up in the wild vs. in the controlled lab environment.
    • Complex vs. impoverished environment factors are related to various aspects of brain organization.

    Brain Injury and Plasticity

    • Early brain injuries can alter brain circuitry, impact behavioral functions later in life, and show functional sparing during infancy if sufficient neuronal and synaptic development has already taken place.
    • The effects vary depending on the location, stage, and age of assessment of brain injury and exposure to gonadal hormones.

    Studying Plasticity After Early Brain Injury

    • Complete recovery can occur if brain injury happens during neurogenesis.
    • Significant injury during migration or differentiation may severely impact later life.
    • After a period of migration and differentiation, the brain has demonstrated the capacity for recovery of brain functions.

    Early Brain Lesions & Later Life Brain Structure

    • Brain plasticity can support recovery after early injury.
    • Brain's organization and new circuitry can develop.
    • Neurons and glial cells are generated to contribute to recovery of lost function.

    Nervous System Changes During Normal Aging

    • Brain weight and grey matter density decreases with age.
    • Dendrite and synaptic speed of transmission decreases with age.

    Using Light to Heal the Brain

    • Low-level laser and light therapy (LLLT or PBM) uses light to promote tissue healing, regeneration, and protection related to tissue injury.

    Two Interacting Aspects of Perception

    • Bottom-up processing involves recognizing stimuli directly, whereas top-down processing involves using pre-existing knowledge.

    Perception: Dynamic, Changing

    • Perception is a continuous and dynamic process influenced by environmental stimuli, previous experiences.

    Sensory Pathways in the Brain

    • Sensory information from all of the senses (except smell) is transmitted through the thalamus, which relays the info to specific sensory areas.

    The Allegory of the Cave

    • Plato's Allegory of the Cave illustrates the difference between a person's actual experience of the world and their perception. The concept emphasizes that humans only sense the physical world (shadow) and miss the true forms (ideas) within.

    How Does Perception Affect Judgment?

    • Various aspects of perception can influence how we interpret and judge situations and situations.

    Altered Time Perception

    • Drugs, such as cocaine and marijuana, can affect an individual's perception of time.

    Perceptual Process: Dynamic, Changing

    • A stimulus is received and perceived, with an associated reaction and cognition.

    Consciousness: Who's In Control?

    • Unconscious/conscious machinery/computations influence many aspects of sensation, perception, and action.
    • The case of Austin Taber and Ian Waterman highlights the varying levels of conscious/unconscious control individuals experience and the effects of these experiences.

    Levels of Arousal

    • Parts of the brainstem, thalamus, and cerebral cortex support levels of arousal, sleep, and transitions between.

    Stages of Sleep

    • The brain has variable states of awareness.
    • Nonconscious, and conscious experiences happen during REM sleep and NREM, or different stages of sleep.

    Organizational Architecture of Complex Systems

    • Complex biological systems demonstrate modular, layered organization with protocols, abstraction, and an application layer—each supporting a specific function.

    Contents of Animal Consciousness

    • Mirror self-recognition tests help investigate the presence of consciousness in other animals.

    Imitation Versus Emulation

    • Imitation involves performing an act the same way based on visual demonstration, while emulation focuses on the purpose of the demonstration.

    Sentience

    • This topic deals with whether animals have consciousness, often related to self-recognition tests.

    Cortex Not Necessary for Sentience

    • The case of hydranencephaly shows that, lacking cortical function, individuals can still demonstrate responsive social interaction.

    Neuroimaging and Consciousness

    • Research in this area uses neuroimaging techniques (like fMRI) to establish relationships between brain activity and states of consciousness.

    Problems with Neuroimaging Technology

    • There are certain limitations to the ability to identify specific brain regions and activities during specific tasks, and potential inaccuracies/confusions involved in the analysis.

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    Brain Development and Cognitive-Behavioural Brain Reserve - PDF

    Description

    Explore the fascinating world of brain development with this quiz. Delve into concepts such as neural plasticity, the differences between child and adolescent brains, and the effects of life experiences on identity. Test your knowledge about the flexibility of the human brain and its adaptive capabilities.

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