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Questions and Answers
Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the brain stem in relation to the cerebrum?
What is the primary function of the brain stem in relation to the cerebrum?
- To continuously transmit nerve signals that activate the cerebrum. (correct)
- To serve as the primary storage site for long-term memories.
- To inhibit all signals to the cerebrum.
- To regulate specific hormone production within the cerebrum.
Why might damage to the brain stem at the junction between the mesencephalon and cerebrum result in a permanent coma?
Why might damage to the brain stem at the junction between the mesencephalon and cerebrum result in a permanent coma?
- It causes uncontrolled hormone release, disrupting brain function.
- It disrupts the activation of the cerebrum by brain stem signals. (correct)
- It directly damages memory storage areas.
- It prevents nerve signals from reaching the muscles, causing paralysis.
What are the two ways in which nerve signals in the brain stem activate the cerebrum?
What are the two ways in which nerve signals in the brain stem activate the cerebrum?
- By initiating motor reflexes and managing respiratory functions.
- By directly stimulating neuronal activity and activating hormonal systems. (correct)
- By producing specific enzymes and regulating sleep cycles.
- By constricting blood vessels and controlling sensory input.
What is the primary role of the bulboreticular facilitory area in controlling brain activity?
What is the primary role of the bulboreticular facilitory area in controlling brain activity?
The reticular excitatory area sends signals upward. Where do most of these signals go first?
The reticular excitatory area sends signals upward. Where do most of these signals go first?
What is the function of acetylcholine released by the nerve endings of large neuronal cell bodies in the brain stem reticular area?
What is the function of acetylcholine released by the nerve endings of large neuronal cell bodies in the brain stem reticular area?
What is the function of the second type of excitatory signal originating from small neurons in the brain stem reticular excitatory area?
What is the function of the second type of excitatory signal originating from small neurons in the brain stem reticular excitatory area?
How do peripheral sensory signals impact the activity of the reticular excitatory area and the brain?
How do peripheral sensory signals impact the activity of the reticular excitatory area and the brain?
What happens to neuronal activity in the brain if all sensory signals entering the brain stem from the periphery are eliminated?
What happens to neuronal activity in the brain if all sensory signals entering the brain stem from the periphery are eliminated?
What positive feedback mechanism contributes to maintaining or enhancing cerebral cortex excitation?
What positive feedback mechanism contributes to maintaining or enhancing cerebral cortex excitation?
What is the primary role of the thalamus in controlling activity in the cerebral cortex, and how does it achieve this?
What is the primary role of the thalamus in controlling activity in the cerebral cortex, and how does it achieve this?
Where is the reticular inhibitory area located, and how does it function to decrease activity in the superior portions of the brain?
Where is the reticular inhibitory area located, and how does it function to decrease activity in the superior portions of the brain?
How do neurohormonal systems differ from direct nerve signal transmissions in controlling brain activity?
How do neurohormonal systems differ from direct nerve signal transmissions in controlling brain activity?
In what ways do the norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin systems affect brain excitability?
In what ways do the norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin systems affect brain excitability?
Which neurotransmitter system is most associated with the regulation of sleep, and how does it achieve this?
Which neurotransmitter system is most associated with the regulation of sleep, and how does it achieve this?
What is the main role of the gigantocellular neurons of the reticular excitatory area, and which neurotransmitter do they utilize?
What is the main role of the gigantocellular neurons of the reticular excitatory area, and which neurotransmitter do they utilize?
What does the term 'limbic system' refer to, and how has its definition evolved over time?
What does the term 'limbic system' refer to, and how has its definition evolved over time?
In addition to behavioral control, what broader set of functions does the hypothalamus, as part of the limbic system, control?
In addition to behavioral control, what broader set of functions does the hypothalamus, as part of the limbic system, control?
Which area is regarded as one of the central elements of the limbic system and what structural features are associated with it?
Which area is regarded as one of the central elements of the limbic system and what structural features are associated with it?
What is the functional role of the limbic cortex in relation to the neocortex and the lower limbic structures?
What is the functional role of the limbic cortex in relation to the neocortex and the lower limbic structures?
Where do the hypothalamus and its allied structures send output signals and to what systems are they primarily directed?
Where do the hypothalamus and its allied structures send output signals and to what systems are they primarily directed?
Despite its small size, what percentage of the brain mass does the hypothalamus represent, and what is its significance in controlling bodily functions?
Despite its small size, what percentage of the brain mass does the hypothalamus represent, and what is its significance in controlling bodily functions?
What roles does the hypothalamus play in regulating the cardiovascular system?
What roles does the hypothalamus play in regulating the cardiovascular system?
Which area of the hypothalamus is primarily involved in the regulation of body temperature, and how does it achieve this?
Which area of the hypothalamus is primarily involved in the regulation of body temperature, and how does it achieve this?
How does the hypothalamus regulate body water content, and what specific regions are involved in these processes?
How does the hypothalamus regulate body water content, and what specific regions are involved in these processes?
How does stimulation of the paraventricular nuclei affect uterine contractility and milk ejection from the breasts?
How does stimulation of the paraventricular nuclei affect uterine contractility and milk ejection from the breasts?
Stimulation of which area of the hypothalamus leads to the sensations of extreme hunger, voracious appetite, and an intense desire to search for food?
Stimulation of which area of the hypothalamus leads to the sensations of extreme hunger, voracious appetite, and an intense desire to search for food?
What roles do the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) play in circadian rhythms, and what happens when lesions occur?
What roles do the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) play in circadian rhythms, and what happens when lesions occur?
How do environmental changes, such as light-dark cycles, affect the circadian rhythms regulated by the SCN (Suprachiasmatic nucleus)?
How do environmental changes, such as light-dark cycles, affect the circadian rhythms regulated by the SCN (Suprachiasmatic nucleus)?
What is the effect of lateral hypothalamic stimulation when assessing behavioral outcomes in animals?
What is the effect of lateral hypothalamic stimulation when assessing behavioral outcomes in animals?
How do lesions in the lateral hypothalamus typically affect an animal's behavior, and what are the likely outcomes?
How do lesions in the lateral hypothalamus typically affect an animal's behavior, and what are the likely outcomes?
What is the primary function of reward and punishment centers in the limbic system?
What is the primary function of reward and punishment centers in the limbic system?
What effect do tranquilizers, such as chlorpromazine, have on the reward and punishment centers within the brain?
What effect do tranquilizers, such as chlorpromazine, have on the reward and punishment centers within the brain?
What is the role of reward and punishment in learning and memory, specifically in the context of habituation and reinforcement?
What is the role of reward and punishment in learning and memory, specifically in the context of habituation and reinforcement?
What is anterograde amnesia, and how does it manifest after bilateral removal of the hippocampi?
What is anterograde amnesia, and how does it manifest after bilateral removal of the hippocampi?
How do bilateral ablations of the amygdala lead to Klüver-Bucy syndrome, and which behaviors are characteristic of this condition?
How do bilateral ablations of the amygdala lead to Klüver-Bucy syndrome, and which behaviors are characteristic of this condition?
What is the likely outcome of severing the brain stem above the entry point of the fifth cranial nerves (trigeminal)?
What is the likely outcome of severing the brain stem above the entry point of the fifth cranial nerves (trigeminal)?
How does the reciprocal signaling between the cerebral cortex and the brain stem's excitatory area contribute to overall brain function?
How does the reciprocal signaling between the cerebral cortex and the brain stem's excitatory area contribute to overall brain function?
What is the functional consequence of stimulating a specific point within the thalamus?
What is the functional consequence of stimulating a specific point within the thalamus?
How does the reticular inhibitory area in the medulla decrease activity in the superior portions of the brain?
How does the reticular inhibitory area in the medulla decrease activity in the superior portions of the brain?
What distinguishes the influence of neurohormonal systems on brain activity from that of direct nerve signal transmissions?
What distinguishes the influence of neurohormonal systems on brain activity from that of direct nerve signal transmissions?
How does norepinephrine generally affect brain activity, and where does the norepinephrine system spread?
How does norepinephrine generally affect brain activity, and where does the norepinephrine system spread?
What is the primary role of the raphe nuclei, and which substance do they secrete to achieve this?
What is the primary role of the raphe nuclei, and which substance do they secrete to achieve this?
How do the gigantocellular neurons of the reticular excitatory area affect the nervous system, and which neurotransmitter do they utilize?
How do the gigantocellular neurons of the reticular excitatory area affect the nervous system, and which neurotransmitter do they utilize?
What broader physiological functions, beyond emotional behavior and motivational drives, are associated with the limbic system?
What broader physiological functions, beyond emotional behavior and motivational drives, are associated with the limbic system?
How does the limbic cortex function as a link between the neocortex and other limbic structures?
How does the limbic cortex function as a link between the neocortex and other limbic structures?
How does stimulation of different areas within the hypothalamus affect cardiovascular regulation?
How does stimulation of different areas within the hypothalamus affect cardiovascular regulation?
How does body water regulation occur via the hypothalamus, and what are the critical areas involved?
How does body water regulation occur via the hypothalamus, and what are the critical areas involved?
How does the hypothalamus regulate uterine contractility and milk ejection from the breasts?
How does the hypothalamus regulate uterine contractility and milk ejection from the breasts?
How do lesions in the lateral hypothalamus typically affect an animal's behavior concerning hunger and thirst?
How do lesions in the lateral hypothalamus typically affect an animal's behavior concerning hunger and thirst?
How does SCN coordinate circadian rhythms by receiving and transmitting information?
How does SCN coordinate circadian rhythms by receiving and transmitting information?
How does the SCN utilize genetic mechanisms to maintain circadian rhythms?
How does the SCN utilize genetic mechanisms to maintain circadian rhythms?
What role do reward and punishment centers play in learning and memory?
What role do reward and punishment centers play in learning and memory?
In the context of reward and punishment centers, what is the effect of administering tranquilizers, such as chlorpromazine?
In the context of reward and punishment centers, what is the effect of administering tranquilizers, such as chlorpromazine?
Why is the hippocampus believed to be critical in decision-making, especially regarding sensory inputs?
Why is the hippocampus believed to be critical in decision-making, especially regarding sensory inputs?
What is the proposed method by which the hippocampus facilitates the conversion of short-term memories into long-term memories?
What is the proposed method by which the hippocampus facilitates the conversion of short-term memories into long-term memories?
How does bilateral ablation of the amygdala lead to Klüver-Bucy syndrome?
How does bilateral ablation of the amygdala lead to Klüver-Bucy syndrome?
What are the effects of stimulating the punishment centers within the limbic system?
What are the effects of stimulating the punishment centers within the limbic system?
Which brain region is most closely associated with the conversion of sensory stimuli into long-term memories?
Which brain region is most closely associated with the conversion of sensory stimuli into long-term memories?
What is the main symptom shown in patients with resections in the amygdalae?
What is the main symptom shown in patients with resections in the amygdalae?
Under normal circumstances, what maintains the rage phenomenon?
Under normal circumstances, what maintains the rage phenomenon?
In relation to the body's biological clock, which components of the activation complex are the initial instigators?
In relation to the body's biological clock, which components of the activation complex are the initial instigators?
How do lesions in the ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus affect drinking an eating versus lesions in the lateral area of the hypothalmus?
How do lesions in the ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus affect drinking an eating versus lesions in the lateral area of the hypothalmus?
For the four neurohormonal systems (dopamine, norepinepherine, serotonin, acetylcholine) in the brain, which is excitatory and directly correlated to wakefulness/excited nervous system?
For the four neurohormonal systems (dopamine, norepinepherine, serotonin, acetylcholine) in the brain, which is excitatory and directly correlated to wakefulness/excited nervous system?
Multiple transmitters function to help regulate areas of the brain, which of the following neurotransmitters is directly related to pain suppression?
Multiple transmitters function to help regulate areas of the brain, which of the following neurotransmitters is directly related to pain suppression?
Name 2 parts that are part of the limbic systems:
Name 2 parts that are part of the limbic systems:
Name one main effect of damaging the Septum area.
Name one main effect of damaging the Septum area.
What is the main characteristic of damaging that Mammillary body?
What is the main characteristic of damaging that Mammillary body?
The anterior part of the thalamus is most directly associated to which processes?
The anterior part of the thalamus is most directly associated to which processes?
Where are the axons for the SCN projected and what is the reasoning for the projection?
Where are the axons for the SCN projected and what is the reasoning for the projection?
Which regions within the rat brain activate the four (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine) neurohormonal systems?
Which regions within the rat brain activate the four (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine) neurohormonal systems?
What is the result of stimulating central brain components such as the periventricular nuclei?
What is the result of stimulating central brain components such as the periventricular nuclei?
What is the expected outcome of broadly stimulating the reticular formation?
What is the expected outcome of broadly stimulating the reticular formation?
How would the selective destruction of acetylcholine-secreting neurons in the brainstem reticular area impact brain function?
How would the selective destruction of acetylcholine-secreting neurons in the brainstem reticular area impact brain function?
What effect do slowly conducting fibers from the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus have on the cerebral cortex?
What effect do slowly conducting fibers from the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus have on the cerebral cortex?
If one were to experimentally eliminate all sensory input to the reticular excitatory area, how would function of the cerebral cortex change?
If one were to experimentally eliminate all sensory input to the reticular excitatory area, how would function of the cerebral cortex change?
How does transection of the brainstem below the entry point of the fifth cranial nerve affect coma development?
How does transection of the brainstem below the entry point of the fifth cranial nerve affect coma development?
What is the functional significance of the reciprocal connections between the cerebral cortex and the brain stem's excitatory area?
What is the functional significance of the reciprocal connections between the cerebral cortex and the brain stem's excitatory area?
Which outcome would you expect from stimulating a specific point within the thalamus?
Which outcome would you expect from stimulating a specific point within the thalamus?
How does the reticular inhibitory area in the medulla influence activity in the brain?
How does the reticular inhibitory area in the medulla influence activity in the brain?
How do direct nerve signals and neurohormonal systems from the lower brain areas compare in their control over brain activity?
How do direct nerve signals and neurohormonal systems from the lower brain areas compare in their control over brain activity?
What are the effects of the norepinephrine system on brain excitability?
What are the effects of the norepinephrine system on brain excitability?
How would one characterize the function of the raphe nuclei in controlling brain activity?
How would one characterize the function of the raphe nuclei in controlling brain activity?
The gigantocellular neurons of the reticular excitatory area utilize what neurotransmitter and what results from its activation?
The gigantocellular neurons of the reticular excitatory area utilize what neurotransmitter and what results from its activation?
What role does the limbic cortex play in the broader context of brain function?
What role does the limbic cortex play in the broader context of brain function?
What is the general effect of stimulating the lateral hypothalamus?
What is the general effect of stimulating the lateral hypothalamus?
How does the hypothalamus facilitate the conservation of body water by the kidneys?
How does the hypothalamus facilitate the conservation of body water by the kidneys?
In an experimental animal, what is the impact of bilateral lesions in the lateral hypothalamus on drinking and eating behavior?
In an experimental animal, what is the impact of bilateral lesions in the lateral hypothalamus on drinking and eating behavior?
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) coordinate circadian rhythms?
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) coordinate circadian rhythms?
What is the effect of electrically stimulating the periventricular nuclei?
What is the effect of electrically stimulating the periventricular nuclei?
How do hypothalamic lesions of the ventromedial areas affect an animal's behavior?
How do hypothalamic lesions of the ventromedial areas affect an animal's behavior?
If a person receives a sensory experience that is neither rewarding nor punishing, what is the likely outcome regarding memory of that experience?
If a person receives a sensory experience that is neither rewarding nor punishing, what is the likely outcome regarding memory of that experience?
According to available studies, which of the limbic structures, when electrically stimulated, can completely inhibit responses in the reward centers?
According to available studies, which of the limbic structures, when electrically stimulated, can completely inhibit responses in the reward centers?
How do lesions in the anterior cingulate gyri and subcallosal gyri affect an animal's behavior, particularly concerning rage?
How do lesions in the anterior cingulate gyri and subcallosal gyri affect an animal's behavior, particularly concerning rage?
What is a key function attributed to the hippocampus in the context of learning and memory?
What is a key function attributed to the hippocampus in the context of learning and memory?
After bilateral removal of the hippocampi, what specific memory deficit is most prominent?
After bilateral removal of the hippocampi, what specific memory deficit is most prominent?
What is the theorized role of the amygdala in relation to the limbic system and sensory information?
What is the theorized role of the amygdala in relation to the limbic system and sensory information?
What are some of the common effects of stimulating the amygdala?
What are some of the common effects of stimulating the amygdala?
Bilateral ablation of the anterior temporal cortex, including the amygdala results in:
Bilateral ablation of the anterior temporal cortex, including the amygdala results in:
Ablation of which cerebral region typically leads to increased motor restlessness and insomnia?
Ablation of which cerebral region typically leads to increased motor restlessness and insomnia?
In the context of the limbic system, what is the primary effect of administering tranquilizers like chlorpromazine?
In the context of the limbic system, what is the primary effect of administering tranquilizers like chlorpromazine?
The limbic system is primarily involved in motor control rather than behavioral and motivational mechanisms.
The limbic system is primarily involved in motor control rather than behavioral and motivational mechanisms.
Severe compression of the brain stem at the juncture between the pons and medulla always results in a permanent state of coma.
Severe compression of the brain stem at the juncture between the pons and medulla always results in a permanent state of coma.
Nerve signals activate the cerebrum by only stimulating a background level of neuronal activity.
Nerve signals activate the cerebrum by only stimulating a background level of neuronal activity.
The bulboreticular facilitory area solely transmits signals downward to maintain tone in the antigravity muscles.
The bulboreticular facilitory area solely transmits signals downward to maintain tone in the antigravity muscles.
Signals from the brain stem reticular area excite the cerebrum through the release of the neurotransmitter serotonin.
Signals from the brain stem reticular area excite the cerebrum through the release of the neurotransmitter serotonin.
Increased sensory signals from the periphery decrease activity in the reticular excitatory area, leading to reduced brain activity.
Increased sensory signals from the periphery decrease activity in the reticular excitatory area, leading to reduced brain activity.
The statement sleep enhances cerebral cortex activity is true.
The statement sleep enhances cerebral cortex activity is true.
Stimulation of a specific point in the thalamus activates its own specific small region of the cerebellum.
Stimulation of a specific point in the thalamus activates its own specific small region of the cerebellum.
The reticular inhibitory area in the medulla increases activity in the superior portions of the brain.
The reticular inhibitory area in the medulla increases activity in the superior portions of the brain.
The serotonin system is directed mainly into the basal ganglial regions of the brain.
The serotonin system is directed mainly into the basal ganglial regions of the brain.
Norepinephrine generally inhibits the brain to decreased activity.
Norepinephrine generally inhibits the brain to decreased activity.
The locus ceruleus is located at the juncture between the pons and cerebellum.
The locus ceruleus is located at the juncture between the pons and cerebellum.
The substantia nigra neurons send nerve endings mainly to the cerebellum
The substantia nigra neurons send nerve endings mainly to the cerebellum
The hypothalamus is not part of the limbic system.
The hypothalamus is not part of the limbic system.
Stimulation of the ventromedial nucleus in the hypothalamus can cause extreme hunger.
Stimulation of the ventromedial nucleus in the hypothalamus can cause extreme hunger.
The anterior pituitary gland receives its blood supply directly from the general circulation.
The anterior pituitary gland receives its blood supply directly from the general circulation.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus synchronizes with environmental light-dark cycles but is unable to maintain its function in the absence of external cues.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus synchronizes with environmental light-dark cycles but is unable to maintain its function in the absence of external cues.
Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus typically leads to satiety, decreased eating, and tranquility.
Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus typically leads to satiety, decreased eating, and tranquility.
Stimulation of the punishment centers can frequently enhance the reward and pleasure centers.
Stimulation of the punishment centers can frequently enhance the reward and pleasure centers.
The hippocampus transmits signals that seem to prevent the mind from rehearsing new information, inhibiting long-term memory consolidation.
The hippocampus transmits signals that seem to prevent the mind from rehearsing new information, inhibiting long-term memory consolidation.
Match the neurohormone with its general function in the brain:
Match the neurohormone with its general function in the brain:
Match the area of the hypothalamus with its primary function:
Match the area of the hypothalamus with its primary function:
Match the limbic structure with its associated function:
Match the limbic structure with its associated function:
Match the effects of electrical stimulation with the corresponding area of the hypothalamus:
Match the effects of electrical stimulation with the corresponding area of the hypothalamus:
Match the effects of lesions with the corresponding area of the hypothalamus:
Match the effects of lesions with the corresponding area of the hypothalamus:
Match the brain area with its role in the reward or punishment system:
Match the brain area with its role in the reward or punishment system:
Match the component of the circadian rhythm system with its function:
Match the component of the circadian rhythm system with its function:
Relate the description to the correct term:
Relate the description to the correct term:
Match the function to the subcortical nuclei.
Match the function to the subcortical nuclei.
Match what system activates:
Match what system activates:
Questions and Answers
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Flashcards
Flashcards
Limbic System
Limbic System
Basal brain regions loosely termed the limbic system that play a key role in motivational drives, learning, and feelings of pleasure and punishment.
Reticular Excitatory Area
Reticular Excitatory Area
An area in the brain stem that sends continuous excitatory signals to the cerebrum, maintaining brain activity.
Reticular Inhibitory Area
Reticular Inhibitory Area
Area located medially in the medulla of the brain stem that inhibits activity in the Reticular Excitatory Area.
Norepinephrine System
Norepinephrine System
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Dopamine System
Dopamine System
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Serotonin System
Serotonin System
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Locus Ceruleus
Locus Ceruleus
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Substantia Nigra
Substantia Nigra
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Raphe Nuclei
Raphe Nuclei
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Gigantocellular Neurons
Gigantocellular Neurons
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Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
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Preoptic Area
Preoptic Area
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Thirst Center
Thirst Center
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Supraoptic Nuclei
Supraoptic Nuclei
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Paraventricular Nuclei
Paraventricular Nuclei
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Lateral Hypothalamic Area
Lateral Hypothalamic Area
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Satiety Center
Satiety Center
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Arcuate Nucleus
Arcuate Nucleus
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
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CLOCK and BMAL1
CLOCK and BMAL1
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Reward and Punishment
Reward and Punishment
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Hippocampus
Hippocampus
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Amygdala
Amygdala
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Anterograde Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia
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Limbic Cortex
Limbic Cortex
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Klüver-Bucy Syndrome
Klüver-Bucy Syndrome
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Brain Stem Excitatory Signals
Brain Stem Excitatory Signals
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Cortical Feedback Signals
Cortical Feedback Signals
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Neurohormonal Control
Neurohormonal Control
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Subcortical Structures
Subcortical Structures
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Medial Forebrain Bundle
Medial Forebrain Bundle
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Association Linkage
Association Linkage
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Anterior Cingulate Gyri
Anterior Cingulate Gyri
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Thalamocortical reverberation
Thalamocortical reverberation
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Bulboreticular Facilitory Area
Bulboreticular Facilitory Area
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Peripheral Sensory Signals
Peripheral Sensory Signals
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State of Coma
State of Coma
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Brain Stem Activation
Brain Stem Activation
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Thalamic Distribution
Thalamic Distribution
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Brain Stem Centers
Brain Stem Centers
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Medial Forebrain communication
Medial Forebrain communication
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Vegetative Control
Vegetative Control
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Body Temperature.
Body Temperature.
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Daily Rhythm.
Daily Rhythm.
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Anterior Temporal Cortex.
Anterior Temporal Cortex.
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Causes of Stimulation.
Causes of Stimulation.
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Posterior Orbital Frontal Cortex
Posterior Orbital Frontal Cortex
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Hippocampus Signal.
Hippocampus Signal.
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Flashcards
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Study Notes
Study Notes
- Control of behavior involves the entire nervous system
- Wakefulness and sleep cycles are crucial behavioral patterns
Overview
- Mechanisms controlling brain activity levels are examined
- Motivational drives, especially their influence on learning, pleasure, and punishment are explored
- The basal brain regions, collectively known as the limbic system, primarily perform these functions
- Limbic means 'border'
Activating-Driving Systems of the Brain
- Continuous nerve signal transmission into the cerebrum from the lower brain is essential
- Severe brain stem compression can cause lasting coma
- Pineal tumour can cause unremitting coma
Activating the Cerebrum
- Nerve signals activate it by:
- Directly stimulating neuronal activity
- Activating neurohormonal systems via neurotransmitters
Control by Excitatory Signals from the Brain Stem
- The level of brain activity is regulated by the reticular excitatory area in the pons and mesencephalon
- The central driving component is in the reticular substance of the pons and mesencephalon
- This area also called the bulboreticular facilitory area
- The same area that transmits signals to maintain antigravity muscle tone also sends signals upwards
- Signals travel to the thalamus, exciting neurons which then transmit to the cerebral cortex, and subcortical areas
Thalamic Signal Types
- Rapidly transmitted action potentials excite the cerebrum briefly
- Originate from large neuronal cell bodies in the brain stem reticular area
- Release acetylcholine, an excitatory agent
- Acetylcholine lasts for only a few milliseconds before destruction
Second Type of Excitatory
- Originate from small neurons in the brain stem reticular excitatory area
- Pass to the thalamus, synapsing in intralaminar and reticular nuclei
- Fibers distribute throughout the cerebral cortex
- This system controls the longer-term background excitability of the brain
Excitation by Peripheral Sensory Signals
- Peripheral sensory signals determine the activity level of the reticular excitatory area
- Pain signals increase activity which strongly excites the brain
- Severing the brain stem above the fifth cerebral nerves reduces sensory signals and brain activity
- The fifth cerebral nerves are the highest nerves entering the brain that transmit significant numbers of somatosensory signals
Feedback Signals from the Cerebral Cortex
- Excitatory signals pass to the cortex and return to the brain stem excitatory area perpetuating cerebral excitation
- A positive feedback mechanism sustains and enhances brain activity, leading to wakefulness
Function of Thalamus
- The thalamus connects almost every area of the cerebral cortex to a specific point
- Electrical stimulation of a thalamic point activates a specific cortical region
- Signals regularly reverberate between the thalamus and cortex, which may establish long-term memories
- It is not clear whether the thalamus calls forth memories or activates processes, but it does have the appropriate neuronal networks
Reticular Inhibitory Area
- An inhibitory area in the medulla can inhibit the reticular facilitory area which decreasing activity in the brain
- It excites serotonergic neurons that secrete serotonin
Neurohormonal Control
- Excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter hormonal agents are secreted into the brain
- Neurohormones provide extended control over minutes or hours, not instantaneous activation
- A norepinephrine system is generally excitatory
- A serotonin system is generally inhibitory
- Dopamine being excitatory sometimes
- These systems affect excitability differently in various brain parts
Systems in the Human Brain
- Brain stem areas activate four systems, the same as in rats, with the addition of the acetylcholine system with specific functions
- The locus ceruleus and norepinephrine generally excites the brain, plays a role in REM sleep
- The substantia nigra and dopamine system neurons project to the caudate nucleus and putamen
- Dopamine acts as a transmitter basal ganglia, possibly excitatory in areas.
- Destruction of dopaminergic neurons causes Parkinson's
- Raphe nuclei and the serotonin system, project to the diencephalon, cortex, and spinal cord, suppresses pain
- The acetylcholine from the gigantocellular neurons functions as an excitatory neurotransmitter
Other Neurotransmitters
- Enkephalins
- Gamma-aminobutyric acid
- Glutamate
- Vasopressin
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- a-Melanocyte stimulating hormone
- Neuropeptide-Y
- Epinephrine
- Histamine
- Endorphins
- Angiotensin II
- Neurotensin
- Each system helps controlling brain function
Limbic System Function
- The limbic system includes the neuronal circuitry controlling emotional behavior and motivation
- The hypothalamus and related structures, control internal conditions (e.g., temperature, fluid balance, hunger) in addition to behavior
Functional Anatomy
- The limbic system is an interconnected collection of basal brain elements
- The hypothalamus is central
- Subcortical structures like the septum, specific thalamic nuclei, parts of the basal ganglia, hippocampus, and amygdala surround it
- The limbic cortex, which encircles the subcortical zones, includes the orbitofrontal area, subcallosal gyrus, cingulate gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus
- The cortex acts as a link between the neocortex and structures
Hypothalamus
- Despite its size of roughly 4 grams, the hypothalamus communicates with the limbic system
- It sends output signals to the brain stem, diencephalon, cerebrum, and pituitary gland
Centers
- Stimulating different hypothalamic areas causes a range of vegetative functions
- Posterior and lateral stimulation raises arterial pressure and heart rate
- Preoptic area stimulation lowers heart rate and arterial pressure
Body Temp
- The hypothalamus regulates body temperature
- It can also create the sensation of thirst
- And regulates water excretion via antidiuretic hormone
Uterine
- Oxytocin from the paraventricular nuclei increases uterine contractility and milk ejection
- Lateral hypothalamus stimulation causes hunger, whereas ventromedial nuclei stimulation induces satiety
- Mammillary bodies control feeding reflexes
Hypothalamic Control of Hormones
- Hypothalamic stimulation causes the anterior pituitary to secrete hormones
- Specific releasing and inhibitory hormones traverse from hypothalamic nuclei via blood for function
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
- The suprachiasmatic nucleus governs circadian rhythms
- The neurons follow a circadian pattern
- Lesions disrupt sleep-wake cycles
- SCN clock information sends through action potentials with effects
- Temperature variations
- Hormonal changes
- Sleep-wake cycle
- Light entrains oscillations by intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells that contains melanopsin
Stimulation Effects
- Lateral hypothalamus stimulation can cause thirst, eating, increase activity, rage, and fighting
- Ventromedial nucleus stimulation induces satiety and tranquility
- Periventricular nuclei stimulation leads to fear and punishment reactions Sexual drive starts from areas, especially anterior and posterior
Lesion Effects
- Lesions have opposite effects
- Lateral hypothalamus lesions decrease drinking and eating
- Ventromedial area lesions trigger excessive eating, drinking, hyperactivity, and rage
- Limbic system lesions cause similar effect
Limbic System
- Several structures concern sensory sensations
- These affective qualities are reinforcement
- Electrically stimulating please while terror
- The degrees of stimulation affect animal
Reward Centers Important
- Centers locate with medial forebrain bundle, especially lateral and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus
- Reward centers are lower than one of hypothalamus
- Strong stimuli result rage
Punishment Centers
- Most areas locate with the central gray are the surround aqueduct of Sylvius
- Lesions can inhibit center demonstrate pain
Punishment Centers Associations
- The punishment centers causes rage, defense and posture
- Factors cause attack as a part of behavior
Reward Importance
- Everything is based on both
- Affective reactivity of animals is based on reward
Learning Important
- Experience needs two ways. Record to remember
Hippocampus Functions
- This is cortex which folds forward from ventral surface of lateral ventricle
- Contains sensory information
- Functions during sexual and rage
- It distributes outgoing signals to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system
Amygdala
- The amygdala is called a "window" for how the limbic system sees a person's place in the world
- The Basolateral nuclei portion of the amygdala has important roles in behavioral activities
Cerebral Cortex
- The cerebral cortex functions as a transitional zone for control of behavior
- The limbic cortex in effect functions as a cerebral association area for control of behavior
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