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Questions and Answers
What type of bone is primarily composed of a thin layer of compact bone surrounding spongy bone?
What type of bone is primarily composed of a thin layer of compact bone surrounding spongy bone?
Which mineral is NOT one of the primary components of bone structure?
Which mineral is NOT one of the primary components of bone structure?
Which type of bones are found in the wrist and ankles?
Which type of bones are found in the wrist and ankles?
What is the main structural characteristic of flat bones?
What is the main structural characteristic of flat bones?
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What characterizes the initial development of the skeleton in infants?
What characterizes the initial development of the skeleton in infants?
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Which statement accurately describes the diaphysis of a long bone?
Which statement accurately describes the diaphysis of a long bone?
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What is the process of replacing cartilage with bone called?
What is the process of replacing cartilage with bone called?
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Which type of fracture is characterized by a break that does not penetrate the skin?
Which type of fracture is characterized by a break that does not penetrate the skin?
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What type of cells are osteogenic cells?
What type of cells are osteogenic cells?
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What is the primary role of cartilage in adult bones?
What is the primary role of cartilage in adult bones?
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How are closed fractures typically treated?
How are closed fractures typically treated?
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What distinguishes open (compound) fractures from closed (simple) fractures?
What distinguishes open (compound) fractures from closed (simple) fractures?
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What role do osteoblasts play in bone formation?
What role do osteoblasts play in bone formation?
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What is the primary function of articular cartilage?
What is the primary function of articular cartilage?
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What does the epiphyseal plate primarily contribute to in young bones?
What does the epiphyseal plate primarily contribute to in young bones?
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Which statement about the periosteum is correct?
Which statement about the periosteum is correct?
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What is found within the medullary cavity after age 6 or 7?
What is found within the medullary cavity after age 6 or 7?
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What type of tissue lines the inner surface of the shaft of a bone?
What type of tissue lines the inner surface of the shaft of a bone?
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What do canaliculi connect within the bone structure?
What do canaliculi connect within the bone structure?
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What is the central (Haversian) canal primarily associated with?
What is the central (Haversian) canal primarily associated with?
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Which statement accurately describes the role of osteon in bone structure?
Which statement accurately describes the role of osteon in bone structure?
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What is the movement called when a limb is moved towards the midline of the body?
What is the movement called when a limb is moved towards the midline of the body?
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Which of the following movements describes bending a joint to decrease the angle?
Which of the following movements describes bending a joint to decrease the angle?
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In which type of movement does the limb make a circular motion?
In which type of movement does the limb make a circular motion?
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What is the term for the movement that lifts the heel away from the ground?
What is the term for the movement that lifts the heel away from the ground?
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What movement occurs when the soles of the feet are turned inward?
What movement occurs when the soles of the feet are turned inward?
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Which of the following best describes supination?
Which of the following best describes supination?
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What do you call the movement of the scapula that pulls it posteriorly and medially?
What do you call the movement of the scapula that pulls it posteriorly and medially?
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Which movement involves bringing the tip of the thumb into contact with a finger?
Which movement involves bringing the tip of the thumb into contact with a finger?
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During hyperextension, how does the angle of a joint change?
During hyperextension, how does the angle of a joint change?
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What is the action called when the jaw is pushed forward?
What is the action called when the jaw is pushed forward?
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What is the primary function of fontanels in the fetal skull?
What is the primary function of fontanels in the fetal skull?
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At what age is the human skull approximately three-fourths the size of an adult skull?
At what age is the human skull approximately three-fourths the size of an adult skull?
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Which of the following bones does not articulate with any other bone?
Which of the following bones does not articulate with any other bone?
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What term describes the spinal curvatures present from birth?
What term describes the spinal curvatures present from birth?
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What is the function of paranasal sinuses?
What is the function of paranasal sinuses?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of the vertebral column?
Which of the following is a characteristic of the vertebral column?
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Which group of ribs are referred to as floating ribs?
Which group of ribs are referred to as floating ribs?
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Which type of joint allows for rotational movement?
Which type of joint allows for rotational movement?
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What is the primary role of the pelvic girdle?
What is the primary role of the pelvic girdle?
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Which of the following bones is known as the thigh bone?
Which of the following bones is known as the thigh bone?
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What is the total number of phalanges in one human hand?
What is the total number of phalanges in one human hand?
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Which type of synovial joint is responsible for flexion and extension movements?
Which type of synovial joint is responsible for flexion and extension movements?
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What are the largest tarsal bones in the human foot?
What are the largest tarsal bones in the human foot?
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What are the three parts of the bony thorax?
What are the three parts of the bony thorax?
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Study Notes
Bone Development
- Infant skeletons are mostly cartilage, a strong and flexible tissue.
- Cartilage is gradually replaced by solid bone, usually completed by the end of growth.
- Not all cartilage is replaced in adults; joints retain cartilage to protect bone ends.
Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodelling
- Bone formation occurs through a process called ossification, on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous membranes.
- Osteogenic cells (osteoprogenitor cells) are mitotically active stem cells found in the periosteum and endosteum.
- Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells that synthesize the matrix.
Bone Fracture
- Fracture: break in a bone.
- Fracture types:
- Closed (simple): break does not penetrate the skin.
- Open (compound): broken bone penetrates the skin.
- Fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization.
- Closed reduction: bones are manually repositioned.
- Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wires during surgery.
Bone Strength
- Bone structure makes it both strong and lightweight.
- Bones make up 20% of an adult's weight.
- Bones are composed of two minerals:
- Calcium
- Phosphorus
Anatomy of a Long Bone
- Diaphysis: makes up most of the bone length, composed of compact bone.
- Epiphysis (ends: proximal and distal): mostly composed of spongy bone enclosed by a thin layer of compact bone.
- Articular cartilage: covers the external surface of epiphyses, made up of hyaline cartilage, decreases friction at joint surfaces.
- Periosteum: outside covering of the diaphysis, fibrous connective tissue membrane.
- Epiphyseal line: remnant of the epiphyseal plate, seen in adult bones.
- Epiphyseal plate: flat plate of hyaline cartilage found in young, growing bones, causes lengthwise growth of long bones.
- Endosteum: lines the inner surface of the shaft, made of connective tissues.
- Medullary cavity: cavity inside the shaft, contains yellow marrow (fats).
- Red marrow: found in the medullary cavity of infants until age 6 or 7, responsible for blood cell formation.
Central (Haversian) Canal
- Opening in the center of an osteon.
- Carries blood vessels and nerves.
Osteon (Haversian System)
- Contains the central canal and matrix rings.
- Structural and functional unit of compact bone.
Canaliculi
- Tiny canals that form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply.
Perforating (Volkmann’s) Canal
- Canal perpendicular to the central canal.
- Carries blood vessels and nerves
Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton
- Fetal skull:
- Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting cranial bones, known as "soft spots".
- Allow skull compression during birth and brain growth during pregnancy and infancy.
- Usually ossify by 2 years of age.
Skull
- Paranasal sinuses: hollow portions surround the nasal cavity, lighten the skull and amplify sounds.
- Hyoid bone: the only bone that doesn't articulate with another bone, serves as a movable base for the tongue, aids in swallowing and speech.
Vertebral Column (Spine)
- Provides axial support, extending from the skull to the pelvis.
- 26 vertebral bones separated by intervertebral discs.
- 7 cervical vertebrae in the neck.
- 12 thoracic vertebrae in the chest region.
- 5 lumbar vertebrae associated with the lower back.
- Sacrum: formed by the fusion of 5 vertebrae.
- Coccyx: formed by the fusion of 3-5 vertebrae.
Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)
- Protects the organs of the thoracic cavity.
- Consists of three parts:
- Sternum
- Ribs:
- True ribs (pairs 1–7)
- False ribs (pairs 8- 12)
- Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
- Thoracic vertebrae (T1 – T12)
Primary Curvatures
- Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions.
- Present from birth.
- C-shaped curvatures (newborn).
Secondary Curvature
- Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions.
- Develop after birth.
- S-shaped (adults)
Parts of a Typical Vertebra
- Body (centrum)
- Vertebral arch
- Pedicle
- Lamina
- Vertebral foramen
- Transverse processes
- Spinous process
- Superior and inferior articular processes
Appendicular Skeleton
- Composed of 126 bones:
- Limbs (appendages)
- Pectoral girdle
- Pelvic girdle
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle (Pectoral Girdle)
- Composed of two bones that attach the upper limb to the axial skeleton:
- Clavicle
- Scapula
Bones of the Upper Limbs
- Humerus: upper limb
- Ulna: forearm
- Radius: forearm
- Carpals: wrist
- Metacarpals: hand
- Hand:
- Carpals: wrist - 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each hand.
- Metacarpals: palm bones - 5 per hand.
- Phalanges: fingers and thumb - 14 phalanges in each hand, each finger has 3 bones except for thumb which has 2 bones.
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
- Where the lower limbs attach to the body.
- Composed of three pairs fused bones:
- Ilium
- Ischium
- Pubis
- Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum.
- Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx.
Bones of the Lower Limbs
- Femur: thigh bone - the heaviest and strongest bone in the body.
- Patella: kneecap.
- Tibia: large lower leg.
- Fibula: small lower leg.
Bones of the Foot
- Tarsals: 7 bones - two largest tarsals: Calcaneus and Talus.
- Metatarsals: 5 bones from the sole of the foot.
- Phalanges: 14 bones from the toes.
Joints
- Types of synovial joints based on shape:
- Plane joint
- Hinge joint
- Pivot joint
- Condylar joint
- Saddle joint
- Ball-and-socket joint
Movements at Synovial Joints
-
Flexion and Extension:
- Flexion: reduces the angle of the joint from resting position.
- Extension: returns joint to resting position.
- Hyperextension: increases joint angle beyond 180 degrees.
- Lateral flexion: bending of neck or body toward left or right side.
-
Abduction, Adduction, and Circumduction:
- Abduction: moves a limb, finger, toe, or thumb away from the midline of the body.
- Adduction: moves a limb, finger, toe, or thumb toward the midline of the body.
- Circumduction: movement in a circular motion, involves a combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction at a joint.
-
Rotation:
- Rotation: twisting movement.
- Medial rotation: moves anterior of a limb toward midline.
- Lateral rotation: moves anterior of a limb away from midline.
-
Supination and Pronation:
- Movements of the forearm.
- Supination: moves palm toward facing posteriorly.
- Pronation: moves palm toward facing anteriorly.
-
Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion:
- Movements of the ankle joint.
- Dorsiflexion: moves top of foot toward anterior leg.
- Plantar flexion: lifts heel away from ground or points toes toward ground.
-
Inversion and Eversion:
- Movements of the foot.
- Inversion: turns bottom of foot toward midline.
- Eversion: turns bottom of foot away from midline.
-
Protraction and Retraction:
- Mandible:
- Protraction: jaw is pushed forward.
- Retraction: returns jaw to resting position.
- Scapula:
- Protraction: shoulder moves forward.
- Retraction: scapula pulled posteriorly and medially.
- Mandible:
-
Opposition and Reposition:
- Opposition: moves tip of thumb in contact with a finger.
- Reposition: returns thumb to its anatomical position.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the process of bone development, growth, and the different types of bone fractures. This quiz covers key concepts related to cartilage, ossification, and fracture treatment methods. Essential for students of anatomy and physiology.
