Bolshevik Consolidation of Power

Establishing Communist Party Control (1917 - 27)

• The Bolsheviks moved quickly to crush opposition and restrict political freedoms.
• Non-Bolshevik newspapers, including those of other left-wing groups, were banned as early as December 1917.
• The Kadet Party faced bans and arrests of its leaders.
• Law courts were replaced by Revolutionary Tribunals.
• The Cheka (secret police) terrorized the Bolsheviks' enemies during the Civil War and Red Terror.
• The Cheka was renamed the GPU in 1922, and the OGPU in 1923.
• During the Red Terror (September 1918 to February 1919), executions numbered between 50,000 and 140,000.
• Concentration camps were established on the Solovetsky Islands.
• Between 1918 and 1922, the SR, Mensheviks, and anarchists were removed and deported, leading Russia to become a one-party state.
• By February 1918, Bolshevik decrees became more extreme, allowing the party to force hard labor and execute resisters.
• The Communists won the Civil War but did not restore democracy as promised.
• War Communism led to famine and a violent response to the Red Terror.
• Autumn 1920: Peasants in Tambov revolted against War Communism, with 50,000 people fighting the Communists.
• Strikes gripped cities in 1921; in Petrograd, the Red Army fired on unarmed workers.
• March 1921: Sailors at Kronstadt rebelled against War Communism and called for a return to democracy.
• Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy at the Party Congress, incorporating free market elements.
• Lenin aimed to eliminate factions within the Communist Party, including the Workers' Opposition and Democratic Centralists.

Government Under Lenin

• Disagreements over Russia's ideal government and involvement in World War One triggered the Civil War.
• Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania split; their armies fought to maintain independence.
• The different groups who fought in the Civil War were called the Reds, Whites and Greens.
• Reds: Bolsheviks
• Whites: Nationalists and monarchists
• Greens: Peasant armies fought against outside rule, mainly in Siberia.
• Anti-Bolshevik forces included left-wing groups, conservatives, and foreign soldiers captured during World War One.
• The Bolsheviks controlled central Russia, aiding their war position with the Red Army and conscription.
• By 1920, the Red Army had 5 million soldiers and discipline.
• The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was controversial element of the 1918 peace.
• The Bolsheviks had control of industrial heartlands and transport links.
• Agitprop was a propaganda organization used to spread the Bolshevik message using art, posters and entertainment.
• The Bolsheviks allied with anarchists and "Greens" to gain support in important areas.
• Red Army soldiers received education, learning to read, write, and understand the political aims of the Bolsheviks.
• Soldiers swore the Socialist Military Oath, and the Red Banner was introduced as an award for bravery.
• Trotsky played a crucial role in instigating these policies and leading the Red Army.
• The Whites were geographically spread out, with longer supply lines and little control over strategic industries.
• The Whites armies had at most 250,000 men.
• The Whites lacked leadership and a common goal, treating peasants poorly and advocating Russian control of non-Russian groups.
• British, French, Japanese, and US troops were sent to Russia to help and encourage the Whites to prevent the spread of Bolshevism.
• The Cheka shot enemies in Red-controlled areas.
• Former Tsarist officers improved the Reds’ military capabilities under supervision.
• Millions died in the Civil War, and the economy was severely weakened.

Economic Achievements of Lenin and Trotsky

• Lenin achieved economic success with the New Economic Policy (NEP), despite controversy.
• The economic growth was strong, especially in 1924 and 1925, increasing popularity of the Bolshevik leadership.
• Lenin's electrification program stands as a successful public works project.
• Farming productivity returned to pre-war levels, allowing some peasants to buy new machinery.
• Exports never reached their 1913 levels.
• The working day decreased from 9.9 hours to 7.8 hours by 1928, applicable to both genders.
• Unemployment remained high due to migration to towns, and economic growth did not fully address this.

Centralisation to Power

• In March 1918, the Bolsheviks became the Russian Communist Party, shifting focus towards "communism."
• Lenin, as chairman of Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars), led Russia toward dictatorship instead of socialist equality.
• The Communist Party controlled power completely, despite the Soviets' supposed regional authority.
• Soviets were required to agree with central party decisions automatically.
• While the communist government appeared democratic, the Communist Party held all decision-making power. Only party members could stand for office, and criticism was not allowed.
• The Central Committee elected the Politburo which was the key policy making committee.
• The first Politburo members were Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, and Stalin.
• From 1917, the Politburo gained power.
• The largest republic in the USSR was the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic.
• Regions were forced to join the USSR, with no option to leave.
• In December 1925, the Communist Party became the ‘All-Union Communist Party (of Bolsheviks)’.

Lenin's Legacy

• Lenin had created a new dictatorship in Russia, and his legacy was authoritarian.
• Lenin removed power from Sovnarkom which resulted in the Politburo taking over its functions.
• Sovnarkom now only approved the Politburo's decisions.
• Opposition parties were officially banned in 1921. It became knowns as the 'party-state'.
• The administration primarily consisted of middle-class individuals from the Tsarist era.
• Those in the Party received better food and accommodation.
• The claim that the Communist Party ruled on behalf of the workers was false.

Elimination of Opponents

• In 1934, the OGPU was reorganized into the NKVD.
• The NKVD suppressed opposition to communist rule.
• Being an “enemy of the people” was used as a crime.
• NKVD officers tried such crimes and often used minimal evidence
• People were tried for contact with foreigners, not cutting pictures of Trotsky from textbooks.
• The NKVD used mass arrests, forced confessions, and informants
• Many prisoners were executed.
• From 1935, the NKVD had arrest quotas, leading to arrests
• Millions by 1941, were housed in the Gulags-a system of camps
• Political prisoners, peasants, workers convicted of wrecking, and those arrested to meet quotas were housed in the Gulags.
• The GULAGS provided slave labor for industry and railroads, especially in Siberia.

Purges of the 1930s

• Purges involved mass arrests, imprisonments, and executions of political prisoners/opponents.
• By 1933, 18% of Communist party members had been expelled
• The Great Purge lasted from 1936-1938.
• The purges distracted from economic issues and to secure Stalin's position.
• Executions were a warning for dissenters and threats to Stalin and helped prevent corruption and strengthen control over party bosses.
• Explosions in the Keremovo mines in 1936 were blamed on enemies, rather than unsafe conditions.
• Stalin wanted to kill potential internal opposition and strengthen his position and forcibly take control across Russia.
• The purges killed thousands of powerful people in the Communist party and army.
• 'Show trials’ were a part of the purges, to make examples of dissenters.
• Factory managers accused of 'wrecking' were put through show trials.
• Potential threats to Stalin, like the 'Old Bolsheviks', were tried and executed, consolidating his power.
• Many of the 'Old Bolsheviks' like Kamenev and Zinoviev were killed during the purges.
• Despite no evidence of plots within the army against Stalin, 35,000 officers were arrested (1937-1938).
• Zinoviev and Kamenev were candidates to lead the Communist party after Lenin's death.
• Zinoviev and Kamenev were executed (August 1936) after a show trial where they were blamed for killing Kirov.
• Kamenev's sons were executed in 1938 and 1939 and his wife was executed in 1941.
• Kamenev & Zinoviev were cleared by the Soviet government (1988).
• The Soviet Union's development was stunted as 'experts' were arrested during the purges.
• About 8 million people were arrested and 1 million were shot during the Great Terror (1937-38).
• Sergei Kirov, was killed in December 1934, sparking mass arrests.
• Gerikh Yagoda was executed in March 1938.
• ‘Show trials’ were used for high profile prisoners, rather than the public.
• Everyone knew what the outcome would be since it was written in advance.
• FIlms released around the world.
• Key trials included Zinoviev and Kamenev (1936), made to confess to aiding Trotsky and Bukharin (1938).
• People confessed to crimes they had not committed in the hopes of mercy, protecting loved ones, and fear of torture.
• The show trials implied a threat to the USSR even though it was from internal enemies.
• Some workers supported the show trials as it allowed them to denounce their bosses.

Stalin's Power Over the Communist Party

• Stalin became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in April 1922.
• Stalin enhanced his personal power and reduced the power of political bodies.
• Stalin purged the Politburo in the 1920s and replaced them with loyal friends.
• The Politburo refused to agree to the execution of Ryutin (a member of a faction against Stalin who had denounced him in 1932.
• Members of the Politburo were cautious of Stalin's Second Five Year Plan targets and forced him to lower then
• Members of the Politburo voiced fears over Stalin's brutality.
• Political power became condensed and given to smaller groups outside of the Politburo.
• By styling himself as an intimidating influence, politicians feared disagreement would result in execution.
• Political institutions had little power because of Stalin's political freedom
• The Communist Party consented to Stalin's policies without challenging him.

Stalin's Power Over the State Before World War II

• Stalin introduced the Soviet Constitution (1936), which was undemocratic in reality.
• The Constitution enfranchised all Soviet citizens, including previously disenfranchised middle classes.
• Constitution included freedom of the press/religion/organization, and guaranteed employment.
• The Soviet Union was a dictatorship.
• Only the Communist Party could run in elections.
• The Soviet Constitution was to persuade countries as and Stalin wanted to persuade countries such as Britain and the United States that the Soviet Union was truly democratic.

Evaluating Stalin’s Power

• Stalin's power was occasionally challenged by members of the Politburo or local Communist Party members.
• The Politburo refused to agree to the execution of Ryutin
• Members of the Politburo were cautious of Stalin's Second Five Year Plan targets as well as his brutality.
• The Politburo did try, on occasion, to limit Stalin's power or call him out on his terror tactics.
• Some of Stalin's advisors did take advantage of the power Stalin gave them and use it for their own agenda.
• The USSR faced international enemies, and the 'socialism in one country' policy was important
• There could be conflict between local communist authorities and Stalin.
• Stalin executed party members if he perceived them to be a threat.

Stalin’s Power During and After World War II

• There needed to be a change of political tactics after World War Two.
• The State Defence Committee controlled war administration.
• The Supreme command controlled the military.
• Stalin was championed after the war as the the controller of soviet union and the victor of the war.
• Stalin focussed on consolidating his authority.
• He maintained power later in life, through divide and conquer tactics and changed the Politburo in 1952 expanding it with younger politicians.
• Stalin had plans for another purge in 1953, leading to arrests and a believed pretext to start purging Jews in the USSR or remove Beria as a political threat.
• The purge did not come to being as Stalin died in 1953.

Changes in Leaders’ Control of the State

• After Stalin's death, many competed to replace him.
• After Stalin's death, the Council of Ministers, the Supreme Soviet and the Central Committee met up and decided to reduce the size of Stalin's Praesidium of the Central Committee.
• The main rivals for power were Malenkov, Beria and Khrushchev.
• Malenkov was the chair of the Council of Ministers.
• Beria had power over the police and security system as Minister of Internal Affairs.
• Khrushchev seems to have held the least power immediately after Stalin's death.
• Khrushchev was Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party.
• Due to many changes in government positions between 1953 and 1956, Khrushchev was an influential figure and those in power often owed position to him..
• Beria was involved in the fabrication of the so-called doctors' plot and was tried in secret and shot alongside six aides.
• Khrushchev began to push for a new farming policy to exploit 'virgin lands' in Kazakhstan and Siberia.
• Malenkov stood down as head of the government as he was replaced by Bulganin, an ally of Khrushchev.
• Khrushchev was also the leader of the committee which organized Stalin's funeral, manipulating Stalin's legacy.
• Khrushchev accused Stalin of abusing his power in a speech at the Twentieth Party Congress, including brutality and the cult of personality.
• He used Lenin's testament to show that the founder of the USSR had not wanted Stalin to be leader and only criticised Stalin's crimes after 1934. There was no liberalisation.
• Stalin's body was later removed from the mausoleum with Lenin and there were riots in the gulags.

Khrushchev's Attempts to Reform the Government

• Khrushchev began a reform campaign in reaction to Stalin's rule.
• Khrushchev claimed that the party was too monolithic.
• Stalin and Lenin had hated 'deviationists', so few expressed any criticism of official policy.
• Stalin, by some, was labeled an 'enemy of the people'.
• Twenty people died in the protest and 60 people were injured.
• Khrushchev released prisoners and although Khrushchev was trying to 'de-Stalinize' the USSR, his position was insecure.
• Malenkov, Molotov, Voroshilov and Bulganin attempted to overthrow Khrushchev.
• Khrushchev had a hard time gaining popularity from secret speech.
• Neither satellite Soviet states, such as Hungary and Poland, wanted a communist government.
• Khrushchev used military force to put down protests in Hungary.
• It was later revealed that a portait of Stalin hung in Khrushchev's office long after the speech.
• He allowed the publication of One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (Alexander Solzhenitsyn).
• The West was confident in dealing with the USSR under Khrushchev. However, the biggest Cold War crises in Berlin and Cuba came under Khrushchev's rule.

Stability and Stagnation (1964-85)

• Brezhnev decided that some of Khrushchev's reforms had not worked.
• Decentralization came to an end and ministerial sections are brought back.
• Agricultural and Industrial sections of the Party were reunited.
• There was no return to the terror of the Stalin years.
• The policy of 'stability of cadres' discouraged too many changes within the government.
• This meant that Party members' jobs were very secure.
• Government officials stayed in their jobs for many years and young people did not take on government jobs,
• People joked that the government had become a 'gerontocracy' - a ruling class of old people.
• In order to progress, some public officials turned to corruption.
• Brezhnev no longer persuaded people to work hard to reach socialism.
• People were angry that corruption was such a big problem, even after socialism had supposedly been reached.
• There was little attempt at reform by Andropov and Cherneko.
• Andropov replaced senior officials.
• Red Army generals were the main target of the campaign.

Explore the Bolsheviks' rise, Red Terror, NEP, and suppression of opposition. Understand factions, secret police (Cheka), and Civil War dynamics. Learn about the consequences of their policies.