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Questions and Answers
What is the primary objective of a pathologist when examining tissues?
What is the primary objective of a pathologist when examining tissues?
Why is diagnosis considered key for clinicians?
Why is diagnosis considered key for clinicians?
What does etiology refer to in the context of disease?
What does etiology refer to in the context of disease?
Which of the following is NOT a component of pathogenesis?
Which of the following is NOT a component of pathogenesis?
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What constitutes the gross picture in a pathological examination?
What constitutes the gross picture in a pathological examination?
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What is the significance of prognosis in clinical practice?
What is the significance of prognosis in clinical practice?
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Which of the following statements about the fate of a disease condition is true?
Which of the following statements about the fate of a disease condition is true?
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What do both diagnosis and prognosis in medicine rely on?
What do both diagnosis and prognosis in medicine rely on?
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Which of the following correctly defines irreversible cell injury?
Which of the following correctly defines irreversible cell injury?
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What is the primary cause of hypoxic cell injury?
What is the primary cause of hypoxic cell injury?
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How do exogenous chemicals typically induce cell injury?
How do exogenous chemicals typically induce cell injury?
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What is the primary focus of pathology?
What is the primary focus of pathology?
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What happens during acute cellular swelling due to hypoxic injury?
What happens during acute cellular swelling due to hypoxic injury?
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Which of the following is NOT a part of the epidemiological study of diseases?
Which of the following is NOT a part of the epidemiological study of diseases?
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What are free radicals characterized by?
What are free radicals characterized by?
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Which of the following is NOT a cause of cell injury and death?
Which of the following is NOT a cause of cell injury and death?
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What does general pathology study?
What does general pathology study?
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What is the term used for the earliest recognizable change following cellular injury?
What is the term used for the earliest recognizable change following cellular injury?
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Which of the following is an example of systemic pathology?
Which of the following is an example of systemic pathology?
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What occurs during programmed cell death?
What occurs during programmed cell death?
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What does the term 'lesion' refer to in pathology?
What does the term 'lesion' refer to in pathology?
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Which of the following best describes the role of a pathologist?
Which of the following best describes the role of a pathologist?
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What is the objective of general pathology?
What is the objective of general pathology?
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Which of the following is a subtype of experimental pathology?
Which of the following is a subtype of experimental pathology?
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What defines irreversible cell injury?
What defines irreversible cell injury?
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Which free radical is primarily generated through the dismutation of superoxide?
Which free radical is primarily generated through the dismutation of superoxide?
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Which mechanism is NOT a result of free radical damage in cells?
Which mechanism is NOT a result of free radical damage in cells?
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What is one characteristic of accidental cell death (necrosis)?
What is one characteristic of accidental cell death (necrosis)?
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Apoptosis is described as a process that primarily targets which type of cells?
Apoptosis is described as a process that primarily targets which type of cells?
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What common factor contributes to the generation of hydroxyl ions (OH)?
What common factor contributes to the generation of hydroxyl ions (OH)?
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Which of the following is not a physiological significance of apoptosis?
Which of the following is not a physiological significance of apoptosis?
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What role does the enzyme superoxide dismutase play regarding superoxide?
What role does the enzyme superoxide dismutase play regarding superoxide?
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Study Notes
Pathology: Study of Disease
- Pathology is the scientific study of disease, focusing on how healthy tissues and organs change in a sick individual.
- It is a foundational subject within the medical field, providing understanding of disease processes.
Scope of Pathology
- Clinical Pathology: The study of disease in living individuals.
- Experimental Pathology: The study of disease in laboratory settings.
- Molecular Pathology: Study of disease at the level of molecules.
- Forensic Pathology: The study of disease in relation to legal matters.
- Subdivisions: Histopathology, cytopathology, hematology, microbiology, immunology, chemical pathology, genetic pathology, toxicology, and forensic pathology.
General Pathology vs. Systemic Pathology
- General Pathology: Focuses on common cellular changes that occur across all tissue types. This includes inflammation, cancer and aging.
- Systemic Pathology: Focuses on disease-specific changes within individual organ systems. Examples include goiter, pneumonia, and breast cancer.
- Lesion: An abnormal structural change in the body caused by an irritant.
Pathologist Role
- A pathologist can be a medical doctor (MD) specializing in pathology or a doctor with a doctorate degree (PhD) trained for lab procedures.
- They identify, name and interpret lesions found in tissue samples, ultimately aiming to reach a diagnosis.
Why Clinicians Need Pathology
- The foundation for diagnosing, treating, preventing and controlling disease lies in understanding its characteristics.
- The ability to identify lesions and their causes within the body (either living or deceased), as well as understanding their pathogenesis, is crucial for proper medical decision-making.
Understanding the Disease
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Etiology - The cause of a disease.
- Predisposing Factors: Contributing factors that influence the development of a disease.
- Exciting Factor: The immediate trigger for the disease.
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Etiology Causes
- Environmental Agents: Physical, chemical, nutritional, infectious, immunological, psychological
- Genetic Factors: Age, genes
- Multifactorial: Diseases caused by multiple factors (e.g., Diabetes, Hypertension, Cancer)
- Pathogenesis - The mechanism by which the causative agent produces changes in the tissues.
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Pathological Picture - The observed characteristics of a disease.
- Gross Picture (Macroscopic): Changes evident through naked-eye examination.
- Microscopical Picture (Histopathology): Changes observed under a microscope.
- Advanced Techniques: Electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, molecular studies.
- Prognosis - The anticipated outcome of a disease, influenced by pathogenesis and the ability to visualize the disease process.
- Fate - The ultimate outcome of the disease, either cure or death.
- Complications - Additional pathological changes that occur during or after the usual course of the disease.
Cell Injury and Cell Death
- Cell Injury: Any biochemical or structural alteration that impairs normal cell function.
- Reversible Cell Injury (Cell Swelling): Early stage of injury, often marked by swelling of cells.
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Irreversible Cell Injury (Cell Death): The point at which cell damage becomes permanent and leads to cell destruction.
- Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death): Regulated process of cell death, serves to eliminate damaged or unwanted cells with minimal host response.
- Necrosis (Accidental Cell Death): Uncontrolled cell death caused by factors like injury.
Causes of Cell Injury and Death
- Oxygen Deprivation (Hypoxia): Lack of oxygen, interferes with cellular energy production.
- Deprivation of Essential Nutrients: Lack of water, food molecules, negatively impacts cell function.
- Chemical Agents: Chemicals can damage cell membranes or interfere with metabolic processes.
- Infectious Agents: Pathogens can invade and disrupt cellular functions.
- Immunologic Reactions: Immune responses, while protective, can sometimes damage cells.
- Genetic Disorders (Congenital Malformations): Inherited genetic defects can lead to cell dysfunction.
- Physical Agents: Trauma, extreme temperatures, and radiation can cause cell injury.
- Free Radicals: Unstable molecules with a single unpaired electron that can damage cell components.
- Aging: Over time, cells accumulate damage that can contribute to cell death.
Hypoxic Cell Injury
- Acute Cellular Swelling: An initial response to hypoxia, characterized by cells taking in water and swelling.
- Mechanism: Hypoxia damages mitochondria, disrupting ion balance. The cell loses potassium and accumulates sodium, leading to water influx and swelling.
Cell Injury Induced By Chemicals
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Mechanism:
- Chemicals can bind directly to critical cellular components, damaging cell membranes or disrupting energy production.
- Chemicals can be transformed into more reactive metabolites that generate free radicals.
Free Radicals and Cell Damage
- Free Radicals: Highly reactive molecules with an unpaired electron, making them unstable and prone to reacting with other molecules.
- Types: Superoxide (O2-), Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), Hydroxyl ions (OH-)
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Damage Mechanisms:
- Lipid Peroxidation of Membranes: Free radicals can damage cell membranes.
- DNA Fragmentation: Leads to apoptosis and cancer.
- Protein Cross-linking: Can damage cell membranes.
Irreversible Cell Injury (Cell Death)
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Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death):
- Significance: Crucial for normal tissue turnover, elimination of damaged cells, and response to pathological stimuli.
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Necrosis (Accidental Cell Death):
- Mechanism: Characterized by enzymatic degradation of the nucleus and cytoplasm, resulting in cell death.
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