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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the red blood cells in the formed elements of blood?
Which of the following valves is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle?
What is the primary function of the capillary beds in the circulatory system?
Which of the following blood vessels delivers oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium?
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What is the pathway for systemic circulation starting with the heart?
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What is the outermost layer of the heart that surrounds and protects it?
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What is the path of oxygen-depleted blood from the body to the heart?
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What is the purpose of the cardiac conduction system?
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What is the term for the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute?
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Which of the following nerves increases heart rate?
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What is the term for the movement of blood from the capillaries back to the heart through the veins?
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Which of the following is NOT a mechanism that helps with venous return?
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What is the term for the blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart?
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What is the main effect of exercise on cardiac output?
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What is the primary function of the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct?
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What is the main difference between nonspecific and specific immunity?
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What is the main effect of aging on the cardiovascular system?
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What is the main function of T-helper cells in the immune system?
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Study Notes
Blood Components
- Blood has two main components: plasma and formed elements.
Plasma
- Plasma is the liquid portion of blood, making up about 55% of its total volume.
- Plasma contains:
- Plasma proteins (e.g., albumin, globulins, fibrinogen)
- Gases (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen)
- Ions (e.g., sodium, potassium, calcium)
- Hormones (e.g., insulin, thyroxine)
- Nutrients (e.g., glucose, amino acids, fats)
- Waste products (e.g., urea, creatinine)
Formed Elements
- Formed elements are the solid components of blood, including:
- Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
- Function: Carry oxygen from lungs to body tissues
- White Blood Cells (WBCs)
- Function: Fight infection and disease
- Platelets
- Function: Form blood clots to stop bleeding
- Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
Heart and Blood Vessels
Heart Chambers
- The heart has four chambers:
- Upper chambers: right and left atria
- Lower chambers: right and left ventricles
Heart Valves
- Atrioventricular (AV) valves:
- Located between atria and ventricles
- Prevent backflow of blood from ventricles to atria
- Semilunar valves:
- Located at the exit points of the ventricles
- Prevent backflow of blood from arteries to ventricles
Blood Vessels
- Blood vessels that deliver blood to each upper chamber of the heart:
- Superior and inferior vena cavae (right atrium)
- Pulmonary veins (left atrium)
- Blood vessels that receive blood from each of the lower chambers of the heart:
- Pulmonary artery (right ventricle)
- Aorta (left ventricle)
Circulation Pathways
Pulmonary Circulation
- Blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart
- Blood travels to the lungs through the pulmonary artery
- Blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide in the lungs
- Blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through the pulmonary veins
Systemic Circulation
- Blood leaves the left ventricle of the heart
- Blood travels to the body tissues through the aorta
- Blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to body tissues
- Blood picks up waste products and carbon dioxide from body tissues
- Blood returns to the right atrium of the heart through the superior and inferior vena cavae
Capillary Bed Function
- Capillary beds are networks of tiny blood vessels where oxygen and nutrients are exchanged with body tissues.
- Capillary beds allow for the exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid.
Location and Structure of the Heart
- The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, surrounded by the pericardium.
- The heart wall consists of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
- The heart has four chambers: right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle.
- The heart has four valves: tricuspid valve, pulmonary valve, mitral valve, and aortic valve.
- Cardiac muscle tissue is responsible for contraction and pumping of blood.
Blood Flow Through the Heart
- Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cava.
- Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve.
- The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary valve.
- Oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins and enters the left atrium.
- Blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the mitral valve.
- The left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body through the aortic valve.
Circulation
- Systemic circulation: oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body.
- Pulmonary circulation: deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
Conduction System of the Heart
- The conduction system consists of the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers.
- The SA node generates the heartbeat and sends signals to the AV node.
- The AV node delays and amplifies the signal before sending it to the bundle of His.
- The bundle of His divides into left and right bundle branches, which then divide into Purkinje fibers.
- Purkinje fibers stimulate the ventricular muscle to contract.
Cardiac Cycle
- The cardiac cycle consists of diastole (relaxation) and systole (contraction).
- The cardiac cycle is regulated by the conduction system.
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
- The P-wave represents atrial contraction.
- The QRS complex represents ventricular contraction.
- The T-wave represents ventricular relaxation.
Cardiac Output
- Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
- Cardiac output is influenced by heart rate and stroke volume.
- Heart rate can be increased or decreased by the autonomic nervous system.
Blood Vessels
- Arteries, veins, and capillaries are three types of blood vessels.
- The three layers of blood vessels are tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
- The layers differ in thickness and composition in different types of blood vessels.
Arteries and Veins
- Notable arteries: common carotid, subclavian, brachiocephalic, aortic trunk, and others.
- Notable veins: external and internal jugular, subclavian, brachiocephalic, and others.
Circulatory Routes
- Circulatory routes include the pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation.
- Venous return is the flow of blood from the body back to the heart.
- Five mechanisms that help with venous return are: skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, pressure gradient, gravity, and valves.
Blood Pressure and Flow
- Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against blood vessel walls.
- Blood flow is regulated by blood pressure and resistance.
- Exercise increases cardiac output.
Cardiovascular Diseases and Disorders
- Notable diseases and disorders: murmur, prolapse, arrhythmia, bradycardia, tachycardia, and others.
Lymphatic System
- The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymphoid tissues, and organs.
- The lymphatic system functions to defend against disease, maintain fluid balance, and absorb fats.
- The right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct receive lymph from the body and drain into the cardiovascular system.
- The lymphatic system includes cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend against disease.
Immune System
- The immune system consists of three lines of defense: physical barriers, nonspecific immunity, and specific immunity.
- The immune system can be antibody-mediated or cell-mediated.
- Acquired immunity is the ability to recognize and respond to specific pathogens.
- T-helper cells play a crucial role in the immune system.
Lymphatic Diseases and Disorders
- Notable diseases and disorders: allergies, autoimmune disorders, immunodeficiency disorders, and others.
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Description
Learn about the two main components of blood: plasma and formed elements, and their functions. Understand the composition of plasma and its various components.
