Questions and Answers
What is the product of starch digestion that is also found in some germinating seeds?
What is the name given to carbohydrates with large numbers of rings in their molecules?
Polysaccharides
Cellulose is used as an energy store in animals.
False
Plants store ___________ as granules inside their cells.
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Match the following structural polysaccharides with their corresponding use:
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What are the six principle sections covered in the Biology volume of The Science Visual Resources Set?
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What does the section 'Maintenance' in the Biology volume of The Science Visual Resources Set focus on?
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The Biology volume of The Science Visual Resources Set includes a comprehensive glossary.
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What are carbohydrates?
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In Biology, ______ provides an overview of the vast range of living organisms found on Earth.
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What are the two main groups of carbohydrates?
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What is the simplest common sugar found in animals?
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Disaccharides are made by linking together two __________ rings by a condensation reaction.
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What are the four groups bonded with a single carbon atom in amino acid molecules?
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What acts as an organic acid in amino acids?
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What regulates the amount of light reaching the object in a light microscope?
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The amino group in amino acids behaves as an acid.
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Amino acids can join to make chains called ___________ when the acid group from one amino acid reacts with the carboxyl group of another.
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What are plant cells surrounded by?
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Animal cells can only be magnified up to ________ times.
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What are the two main groups of proteins?
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What is the function of structural proteins?
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What is the function of contractile proteins?
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Globular proteins are delicate and easily damaged by heat or chemicals.
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What is the function of enzymes?
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What is the lock-and-key hypothesis?
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What is the function of coenzymes?
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What type of microscope uses electrons instead of light to image specimens?
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What can electron microscopes examine?
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Specimens for electron microscopes require simple preparation.
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What covers the whole outside of a cell?
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Match the cell structure with its function:
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What is the mitochondrion sometimes referred to as?
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Which organelle is responsible for aerobic respiration in a cell?
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Pinocytotic vesicles contain soluble molecules from outside the ______.
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Plant cells contain centrioles.
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What is the role of a coenzyme in enzyme-catalyzed reactions?
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Which type of inhibitor binds to the active site of an enzyme?
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Non-competitive inhibitors distort the shape of the enzyme so it can function properly.
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Fatty acids react with glycerol to bond their long chains to the ______________ group in glycerol.
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Study Notes
Biology: An Illustrated Guide to Science
UNITY
Simple Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are chemical compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with some containing nitrogen or sulfur.
- Two main groups of carbohydrates: sugars and starches.
- Sugars are small, water-soluble molecules that taste sweet, while starches are large, insoluble molecules.
Monosaccharides
- Simple sugars with formula Cn(H2O)n.
- Glucose (C6H12O6) is the simplest common sugar found in animals, with two molecular forms: straight chain and ring.
- 98% of sugar molecules in a solution are in ring form.
Disaccharides
- Sugars made by linking two monosaccharide rings through a condensation reaction.
- OH groups from each monosaccharide unit react to form water (H2O) and an oxygen bridge between sugar rings.
- Maltose (C12H22O11) is a disaccharide formed by two glucose molecules joined together by a glycosidic (C-O-C) bond.
Complex Carbohydrates
- Polysaccharides are carbohydrates with large numbers of rings in their molecules.
- Used in living things for energy storage and to build structures.
- Starches are large polysaccharides formed by joining long chains of monosaccharide units (such as glucose) together.
Please note that this summary is based on the provided text and may not cover all aspects of the topic.### Polysaccharides
- Starches are insoluble and form granules within a cell, which do not upset the water balance of the cell.
- When energy is needed, hydrolysis breaks down starch into sugar molecules, providing energy through respiration.
- Animals use glycogen as a carbohydrate energy storage molecule.
- Cell walls in plants are made of cellulose, a polysaccharide that can contain thousands of monosaccharide units bonded together.
- Cellulose molecules are flat and stronger than steel fibers, running through plant cell walls like reinforced concrete.
Uses of Polysaccharides
- Polysaccharides are used for energy storage in animals, with glycogen being an instant store of energy in the liver.
- Chitin is a structural polysaccharide found in shellfish, insects, and fungi, and is not used as an energy store.
- Polysaccharides are used in plants for energy storage (starch) and structural support (cellulose).
Amino Acids
- Amino acids are made of four groups bonded with a single carbon atom: amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and variable group (R).
- The amino group is basic, while the carboxyl group is acidic.
- There are about 20 naturally occurring amino acids, with different R groups.
- Glycine is the simplest amino acid, with an R group of a single hydrogen atom.
Joining Amino Acids
- Amino acids can join to make chains called polypeptides through peptide bonds.
- The acid group from one amino acid reacts with the carboxyl group of another, releasing water and producing a peptide bond.
Protein Structure
- Proteins are made of small amino acid molecules linked by peptide bonds in long chains.
- The number and order of amino acids in the chain decide how the protein will behave.
- Some proteins have more than one chain of amino acids and some have extra groups of atoms added.
- Hemoglobin, which transports oxygen, is a protein with four amino acid chains wrapped around a central group containing iron.
- Insulin, a small protein molecule, has only 51 amino acids on two chains tethered together by disulfide bridges.
Protein Size
- Insulin is a small protein molecule, while some large immunity proteins have thousands of amino acids and are bigger than some simple living organisms.
Twisting and Turning
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The amino acid chain twists as it grows, forming a spiral shape held together by links along its length.### Classification of Proteins
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There are two main groups of proteins: fibrous and globular
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Both groups have the same basic structure, which is a long chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds
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The difference between the two groups depends on the way the protein chains are arranged
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Fibrous proteins have chains twisted into spiral shapes held together by strong bonds
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Fibrous proteins can be divided into structural and contractile proteins
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Structural proteins form the structure of an organism and can be found in skin and hair
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Contractile proteins, such as myosin, help muscles contract
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Globular proteins have chains that wind in and out of each other, twisting into complex shapes
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Globular proteins often have more than one chain and can contain extra non-protein groups
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Examples of globular proteins include hemoglobin, enzymes, transport proteins, protective proteins, and hormones
Enzymes: Mechanism
- Enzymes are proteins that control the rate of reactions in living things
- Each reaction has its own enzyme, and if the enzyme is missing, the reaction does not take place
- The lock-and-key hypothesis suggests that enzymes have an active site that substrates fit into, allowing the reaction to occur
- The induced-fit hypothesis suggests that the substrate helps the enzyme to form the correct shape to receive it
Enzymes and Coenzymes
- Coenzymes are small molecules that are needed in some enzyme reactions to help the reaction work properly
- Coenzymes are often vitamins and minerals
- Most enzymes will not react with any chemical other than their substrate, and some enzymes can only react in the presence of a coenzyme
- The coenzyme binds to the enzyme and changes its shape, allowing the active site to receive the substrate
- When the reaction has occurred, the product is released from the enzyme-coenzyme complex, and the coenzyme is also released and becomes available for another reaction
Enzymes and Inhibitors
- Inhibitors reduce or destroy the activity of an enzyme
- There are two types of inhibitors: competitive inhibitors and non-competitive inhibitors
- Competitive inhibitors bind with the active site of an enzyme, blocking it
- Non-competitive inhibitors bind with a different part of the enzyme molecule, distorting its shape and making it unable to function
- Competitive inhibitors can be released from the active site, allowing the enzyme to be regenerated
- Non-competitive inhibitors are not released from the enzyme molecule, making it impossible to regenerate the enzyme
Fatty Acids and Glycerol
- Glycerol is a small molecule with three OH groups emerging from a short carbon chain
- Glycerol is important in the formation of lipids, substances insoluble in water that include fats and oils
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Description
Learn about simple carbohydrates, including monosaccharides and their composition, with a focus on glucose and other common sugars.
