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Questions and Answers
What forms when there is a buildup of fat, calcium, and cholesterol in the arterial walls?
What forms when there is a buildup of fat, calcium, and cholesterol in the arterial walls?
Which blood types can be inherited from parents?
Which blood types can be inherited from parents?
What is the most common consequence of receiving the wrong blood type in a transfusion?
What is the most common consequence of receiving the wrong blood type in a transfusion?
What is an aneurysm most commonly described as?
What is an aneurysm most commonly described as?
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In a closed circulatory system, where is the blood contained?
In a closed circulatory system, where is the blood contained?
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What is the role of xylem in plants?
What is the role of xylem in plants?
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What phenomenon causes water to be pulled up through the xylem?
What phenomenon causes water to be pulled up through the xylem?
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How do cohesion and adhesion contribute to water transport in plants?
How do cohesion and adhesion contribute to water transport in plants?
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What is the primary process by which sugars from photosynthesis are transported in plants?
What is the primary process by which sugars from photosynthesis are transported in plants?
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What is the role of companion cells in sugar transport?
What is the role of companion cells in sugar transport?
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What is the main function of the anal canal?
What is the main function of the anal canal?
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Which vitamin is stored by the liver?
Which vitamin is stored by the liver?
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How does the gallbladder respond after a fatty meal?
How does the gallbladder respond after a fatty meal?
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What is one of the key pieces of evidence for evolution according to anatomical comparisons?
What is one of the key pieces of evidence for evolution according to anatomical comparisons?
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What does the pancreas secrete to neutralize stomach acid?
What does the pancreas secrete to neutralize stomach acid?
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What does the term 'evolution is conservative' imply?
What does the term 'evolution is conservative' imply?
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Which genetic component is consistent across fish, birds, and mammals?
Which genetic component is consistent across fish, birds, and mammals?
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What is one of the primary functions of the liver?
What is one of the primary functions of the liver?
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What is the primary function of chloroplasts during photosynthesis?
What is the primary function of chloroplasts during photosynthesis?
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During which stage of meiosis does crossing over occur?
During which stage of meiosis does crossing over occur?
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What is the result of one complete round of meiosis?
What is the result of one complete round of meiosis?
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What is the function of the inner membrane of chloroplasts?
What is the function of the inner membrane of chloroplasts?
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What is the term for the process that produces gametes with novel combinations of genes?
What is the term for the process that produces gametes with novel combinations of genes?
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What is the main purpose of membrane-bound organelles?
What is the main purpose of membrane-bound organelles?
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Which of the following statements about chloroplasts is true?
Which of the following statements about chloroplasts is true?
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What type of cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
What type of cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
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What is the primary function of the ventilation system in the lungs?
What is the primary function of the ventilation system in the lungs?
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Which of the following best describes an asthma attack?
Which of the following best describes an asthma attack?
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What is one of the main causes of emphysema?
What is one of the main causes of emphysema?
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Which condition is classified as a combination of bronchitis and emphysema?
Which condition is classified as a combination of bronchitis and emphysema?
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What leads to the inefficient gas exchange seen in emphysema?
What leads to the inefficient gas exchange seen in emphysema?
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Which of the following statements about lung cancer is accurate?
Which of the following statements about lung cancer is accurate?
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What is pneumonia primarily caused by?
What is pneumonia primarily caused by?
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Which type of pneumonia is caused by an infection?
Which type of pneumonia is caused by an infection?
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What is the role of the hydrophilic head of a phospholipid?
What is the role of the hydrophilic head of a phospholipid?
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Which of the following best describes a membrane-spanning protein?
Which of the following best describes a membrane-spanning protein?
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What evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory regarding mitochondria?
What evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory regarding mitochondria?
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Why is cellular respiration composed of multiple steps?
Why is cellular respiration composed of multiple steps?
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What is the primary function of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells?
What is the primary function of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells?
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Which characteristic defines small nonpolar and polar molecules' movement across the cell membrane?
Which characteristic defines small nonpolar and polar molecules' movement across the cell membrane?
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How do phospholipids arrange themselves in the cell membrane?
How do phospholipids arrange themselves in the cell membrane?
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What is the significance of ATP in cellular activities?
What is the significance of ATP in cellular activities?
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Study Notes
Transport in Plants (Water)
- Water and minerals are transported upwards through xylem, in a unidirectional manner
- Water evaporates from the leaves (transpiration), creating a negative pressure
- This negative pressure pulls water up from the roots, similar to sucking liquid through a straw.
- Minerals are absorbed along with the water.
- Xylem cells are dead at maturity, lacking organelles, facilitating easier water movement.
- Cohesion: Water molecules stick together due to their polarity, forming a continuous chain
- Adhesion: Water molecules are attracted to the xylem vessel walls, counteracting gravity.
Water Adhesion and Cohesion (Xylem)
- Cohesion is when molecules of the same substance stick together
- Adhesion is when molecules of different substances stick together
- Water molecules inside the xylem are stuck together due to their polarity
- The continuous chain of water molecules moves from the roots up to the leaves.
Translocation
- Photosynthesis produces sugars in the leaves (source).
- Sugars are transported to other parts of the plant that need them (sink)
- This movement is called translocation
- Sieve tubes load the sugars, creating a concentration gradient
- Water enters the sieve tubes through osmosis, creating pressure that pushes the sugar solution
- Companion cells contain mitochondria to help load and unload sugars into the phloem.
Asexual Reproduction
- Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
- Advantages: well suited to the environment. Less energy required per reproductive cycle.
- Disadvantages: poor at adapting to new conditions because there is no diversity to work with
- Examples of Asexual Reproduction:
- Strawberry plants: Runners produce new plants.
- Dandelions: Modified underground stems.
- Potatoes: Modified underground stems.
Sexual Reproduction
- Sexual reproduction involves meiosis, creating genetically unique offspring.
- Advantages: Ideal for changing environments and during stress period. Higher diversity
- Disadvantages: Energy intensive (cellular level). Example is fertilization in flowering plants. Example of sexual reproduction: Pollination in flowering plants.
Flower Anatomy
- Sepals (outermost whorls): Protect the flower bud before it opens.
- Petals (second whorl): Attract pollinators.
- Stamen (third whorl): Male part (anther + filament). Produces pollen
- Carpels/pistil (innermost whorl): Female part (stigma + style + ovary). Receives pollen.
Pollination
- Self-Pollination: Pollen transferred from the male part to the female part of the same plant.
- Cross-Pollination: Pollen transferred from the male part to the female part of a different plant.
Seed Dispersal
- Seeds dispersed by animals through ingestion and feces or burying.
- Light-weight seeds are carried by wind and water.
- Sticky seeds are carried by animals.
Upper Epidermis/Cuticle
- Protective barrier against pathogens and water loss.
- Forms glucose and energy for the plant.
Palisade Mesophyll
- Elongated and columnar cells, packed tightly for maximum light exposure.
- Maximizes number of cells exposed to light.
Vein (Xylem and Phloem)
- Xylem and phloem tissues facilitate gas exchange.
Spongy Mesophyll/Air Space
- Facilitates gas exchange between the internal tissues and external environment.
Guard Cells/Stoma
- Regulate the opening and closing of stomata.
- Control gas exchange (carbon dioxide in, oxygen out) and transpiration (water vapor out).
Osmosis
- Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
- Water moves from high concentration to low concentration.
- A hypertonic solution has a lower concentration of water than a hypotonic solution, so water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic.
Key Terms (Osmosis and solutions)
- Solute: Any dissolved substance in water (like salt).
- Hypertonic: Higher concentration of solutes.
- Isotonic: Same concentration of solutes.
- Hypotonic: Lower concentration of solutes.
Heart Attack
- Myocardial infarction. Blood flow blockage to the heart.
- Can lead to cardiac arrest.
- Lack of blood flow to the rest of the body.
Circulatory System
- Network of blood, blood vessels, and heart.
- Supplies the body with oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes waste products.
Main Functions of the Circulatory System
- Transportation of gasses, nutrients, hormones, and waste.
- Protection against blood loss from injury and diseases.
- Regulation of body temperature and pH
- Types of Circulation: Pulmonary, Cardiac, and Systemic.
Components of Blood
- Blood: Transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other materials.
- Blood vessels: Hollow tubes that carry blood (arteries, veins, and capillaries).
- Heart: Pumps blood through the body and generates blood flow.
- Plasma: Yellowish liquid component of blood that carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
- Red Blood Cells: Carry oxygen.
- White Blood Cells: Fight infection.
- Platelets: Help with clotting.
- Hemoglobin: Protein that binds to and carries oxygen.
High Altitude
- People living at high altitudes have adaptations including more RBCs for transporting more oxygen.
Anemia
- Low red blood cell count.
- Results in tiredness, weakness, and shortness of breath.
Sickle Cell Disease
- Genetic mutation affecting hemoglobin structure.
- Causes sickle cells (hard, sticky cells) that block blood vessels.
- Leads to reduced life span of the cells (10-20 days).
Blood Vessels (Arteries and Veins)
- Arteries carry high-pressure blood away from the heart and have thicker walls.
- Veins carry low-pressure blood back to the heart and have thinner walls (with valves to prevent backflow).
Capillaries
- Very small blood vessels, facilitating gas and nutrient exchange between blood and body tissues.
- Oxygen & carbon dioxide diffuse through capillaries.
Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation
- Vasoconstriction: Narrowing of blood vessels to reduce blood flow.
- Vasodilation: Widening of blood vessels to increase blood flow.
Heart
- Location: Slightly left of the middle of the chest.
- Structure: Four chambers (2 ventricles and 2 atria).
- Muscular pump.
Heart Beat
- Involuntary muscles
- Sinoatrial node (SA node) is the primary controller of the heart.
- The SA node signals the heart and triggers 60-100 contractions per minute.
Blood Clotting
- Natural process to stop bleeding from injuries.
- Involves a series of reactions that form a clot, preventing further blood loss.
- Platelets, prothrombin, and fibrin are key components.
Bruising
- Caused when blood vessels are damaged and blood pools under the skin.
Blood Pressure
- Systolic pressure: Blood pressure during heart contraction.
- Diastolic pressure: Blood pressure when the heart is relaxing.
High Blood Pressure ("Hypertension")
- Condition where blood pressure is persistently high.
- Causes: Plaque buildup in arteries reducing flexibility and blood flow.
Atherosclerosis
- Condition where plaque builds up in arterial walls.
Aneurysm
- Weakened or bulging area in a blood vessel wall.
Blood Types & Antigens/Antibodies
- Blood types are determined by antigens (molecules on the surface of red blood cells).
- Antibodies are proteins produced in response to antigens.
- Different blood types have different antigens and antibodies that may cause reactions if mixed.
Cystic Fibrosis
- Autosomal recessive lung disease causing thick mucus production.
- Mutation in CFTR protein, affecting chloride and water movements in cell membranes
- Affects other organs, especially the lungs, pancreas and digestive systems.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
- Long-term disease involving bronchitis and emphysema.
Tumors/Lung Cancer
- Abnormal growth of tissue (cells).
- Cells grow rapidly, do not go through natural cell death, and may metastasize (spread).
- Lung cancer frequently starts from smoking and exposure to other pollutants. Can also be due to passive smoking.
Pneumonia
- Infection of the lungs, causing inflammation.
- Interfering with gas exchange, usually due to bacteria, viruses, or fungi.
- Types include Bronchial, Lobar, and Interstitial.
Respiration (Ventilation, Inhalation, Exhalation)
- Ventilation: Movement of air into and out of the lungs (inhalation, exhalation).
- Inhalation: Air moves into the lungs due to the diaphragm and rib muscle contractions, creating lower pressure in lungs
- Exhalation: Air moves out of the lungs due to diaphragm relaxation and rib muscle relaxation creating higher pressure in lungs
- Gas Exchange occurs at the Alveoli
Nasal Cavity
- Warming and moistening air.
- Filtering out foreign particles (dust and pathogens) with mucus and hairs.
Pharynx
- Common passageway for food and air.
- Epiglottis prevents food entering the trachea.
Larynx (Voicebox)
- Contains cartilage and vocal cords, which vibrate to produce sounds when air passes over them.
Trachea
- Flexible tube of cartilage, lined with mucus and cilia.
Bronchi
- Two branching tubes that lead to the lungs
- Where air is directed to the lungs from the trachea.
Bronchioles
- Smaller branches of bronchi leading to Alveoli
Lungs
- Essential for gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out)
- Contain Alveoli, which are tiny air sacs that provide large surface area.
Mechanism of Breathing
- Brain coordinates breathing. Blood pH is controlled by carbon dioxide levels.
- Breathing increases in response to higher carbon dioxide levels in blood.
Cellular Respiration
- Aerobic reaction necessary for creating energy for cells.
- Occurs in Mitochondria in eukaryotes
- Glucose + Oxygen yields ATP, carbon dioxide and water
Breathing/Ventilation (Diaphragm)
- Inhalation: Diaphragm contract and moves downwards, chest cavity expands and air moves in
- Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards, chest cavity decreases and air moves out
Mechanisms of Evolution (Natural Selection, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift, Mutation, Non-Random Mating)
- Natural Selection: Inheritance of traits that increase survival and reproduction within a population.
- Gene Flow: Movement of genes into or out of a population.
- Genetic Drift: Large decrease in population size, leading to the loss of genetic diversity.
- Mutation: Random changes to DNA leading to new traits
- Non-random mating: Chance of organism choosing mate based on certain characteristics.
Reproductive Isolation
- Factor that prevents two populations from interbreeding.
- This can form two different species
- Examples: Behaviour, geographical, and temporal isolation
Types of Cells (Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic)
- Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles like nuclei. e.g., Bacteria and Archea
- Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles like nuclei. E.g., Protists, fungi, plants, and animals
Classification & Phylogeny
- Taxonomy: The science of classifying organisms based on shared characteristics.
- Phylogeny: The evolutionary history of organisms.
- The use of cladograms (phylogenetic trees) shows relationships among organisms. Common ancestry between species is a central concern in Biology
6 Kingdoms of Life
- Bacteria
- Archaea
- Protists
- Fungi
- Plants
- Animals
Viruses
- Non-living infectious agents.
- Consist of a genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by protein coat (capsid). Cannot reproduce without a host cell.
- Examples: HIV, influenza, cold sores
Viruses
- Lysogenic cycle: Virus genome integrates into host cell's DNA and replicates with the host.
- Lytic cycle: Virus takes over the host cell, replicates itself, and then destroys the host cell.
Vaccines
- Substances that stimulate the immune system to create immunity against a specific disease.
- Practice version of battling a disease to create a better equipped immune response.
Bacteria
- Prokaryotic cells (lack a nucleus).
- Reproduction: Asexual (binary fission).
- Adaptations (resistance to antibiotics) through genetic exchange and mutations.
Gram Stain
- Technique for classifying bacteria based on the structure of their cell wall, in particular, peptidoglycan.
- Positive: Thicker cell wall, retaining stain.
- Negative: Thinner cell wall, not retaining stain.
Antibiotic Resistance
- Bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics through various mechanisms (e.g., Mutation, Conjugation, Transduction).
- Resistant genes can be passed between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer.
Cell Membranes
- Selectively permeable barrier around a cell.
- Phospholipids and proteins are major components.
- Important functions: Transport, compartmentalization, and communication.
Endosymbiosis
- Process related to the origin of eukaryotic organelles such as Mitochondria and Chloroplast. E.g., bacteria living inside early cells.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
- Photosynthesis uses energy from sunlight to create glucose.
- Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria and breaks down the glucose for energy.
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Test your knowledge on the circulatory and plant systems with this quiz. Questions explore topics such as blood types, sugar transport, and evolutionary evidence. Perfect for students studying biology in depth.
