Biology Quiz: Cell, Genetics, and Ecology

Cell Structure:
- Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells.
- Organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and plasma membrane.
Cell Functions:
- Metabolism: anabolic and catabolic pathways.
- Cell division: mitosis (somatic cells) and meiosis (gametes).
- Cell signaling: receptors, signaling pathways, and response.

Basic Concepts:
- DNA structure: double helix, nucleotides (A, T, C, G).
- Genes and alleles: dominant and recessive traits.
Inheritance Patterns:
- Mendelian inheritance: Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment.
- Non-Mendelian inheritance: incomplete dominance, codominance, and polygenic traits.
Genetic Technologies:
- PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction), CRISPR-Cas9, gene cloning.

Levels of Organization:
- Individual, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere.
Ecosystem Dynamics:
- Energy flow: producers, consumers, decomposers.
- Nutrient cycles: carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle.
Interactions:
- Symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, parasitism.
- Population dynamics: carrying capacity, exponential growth, logistic growth.

Theory of Evolution:
- Natural selection: variation, competition, survival of the fittest.
- Genetic drift and gene flow.
Speciation:
- Allopatric vs. sympatric speciation.
- Mechanisms: reproductive isolation, behavioral isolation.
Evidence for Evolution:
- Fossil records, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, biogeography.

Types of Microorganisms:
- Bacteria: prokaryotic, single-celled organisms.
- Viruses: acellular, require a host to replicate.
- Fungi: eukaryotic, can be unicellular or multicellular.
- Protists: diverse group, can be plant-like, animal-like, or fungus-like.
Microbial Processes:
- Fermentation, nitrogen fixation, decomposition.
Impact on Humans:
- Pathogenic bacteria and viruses, antibiotics, vaccines.
- Role in ecosystems: nutrient cycling, food production (e.g., yeast in baking).

Prokaryotic cells are simpler, lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles.
Key organelles include:
- Nucleus: stores genetic material.
- Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, produces energy.
- Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic reticulum: involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
- Golgi apparatus: modifies and packages proteins.
- Lysosomes: digest and breakdown waste.
- Plasma membrane: regulates entry and exit of substances.
Metabolism consists of anabolic pathways (building molecules) and catabolic pathways (breaking down molecules).
Cell division occurs via mitosis, producing two identical somatic cells, and meiosis, resulting in four gametes with half the chromosome number.
Cell signaling involves receptors that detect signals and initiate response pathways.

DNA is structured as a double helix composed of nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G).
Genes are segments of DNA that determine traits, while alleles are different versions of a gene that can be dominant or recessive.
Mendelian inheritance is described by:
- Law of Segregation: alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation.
- Law of Independent Assortment: genes for different traits are inherited independently.
Non-Mendelian inheritance includes:
- Incomplete dominance: heterozygous phenotype is intermediate.
- Codominance: both alleles fully express in the phenotype.
- Polygenic traits: influenced by multiple genes.
Genetic technologies include:
- PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): amplifies DNA segments.
- CRISPR-Cas9: a gene-editing tool.
- Gene cloning: replicating a specific gene for study or use.

Levels of organization in ecology are ranked as individual, population, community, ecosystem, biome, and biosphere.
Ecosystem dynamics include:
- Energy flow: energy moves from producers (plants) to consumers (herbivores, carnivores) and decomposers (fungi, bacteria).
- Nutrient cycles: essential cycles include the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and water cycle, which are crucial for ecosystem sustainability.
Interactions within ecosystems feature symbiosis:
- Mutualism: both species benefit.
- Commensalism: one species benefits, the other is unaffected.
- Parasitism: one organism benefits at the expense of another.
Population dynamics are characterized by carrying capacity (maximum population an environment can sustain), exponential growth (unrestricted growth), and logistic growth (limited by resources).

The theory of evolution is primarily driven by natural selection, which includes variation within populations, competition for resources, and survival of organisms most suited to their environment.
Genetic drift refers to random changes in allele frequencies, whereas gene flow is the transfer of alleles between populations.
Speciation can occur in:
- Allopatric speciation: geographically isolated populations evolve independently.
- Sympatric speciation: populations evolve in the same geographic area due to various factors, such as reproductive isolation.
Evidence supporting evolution includes:
- Fossil records that show transitional forms.
- Comparative anatomy revealing homologous structures.
- Molecular biology comparing DNA and protein sequences.
- Biogeography illustrating species distribution influenced by historical events.

Types of microorganisms include:
- Bacteria: single-celled prokaryotes with diverse metabolic pathways.
- Viruses: acellular entities that require a host cell for replication.
- Fungi: eukaryotic organisms that can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds).
- Protists: a diverse group that can exhibit plant-like (algae), animal-like (protozoa), or fungus-like characteristics.
Microbial processes play vital roles in ecosystems, including:
- Fermentation: converting sugars into acids or alcohol.
- Nitrogen fixation: converting atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plants.
- Decomposition: breaking down organic matter, recycling nutrients.
Microorganisms impact humans through:
- Pathogenic bacteria and viruses causing diseases.
- Antibiotics used to treat bacterial infections.
- Vaccines that prevent viral diseases.
- Involvement in nutrient cycling and food production, such as yeast used in baking.