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Questions and Answers
What is the primary characteristic of an acid in terms of protons?
What is the primary characteristic of an acid in terms of protons?
Which statement about pH is true?
Which statement about pH is true?
What role do buffers play in the body?
What role do buffers play in the body?
Which of the following defines metabolism?
Which of the following defines metabolism?
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Which type of reaction involves a transfer of electrons?
Which type of reaction involves a transfer of electrons?
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Which of the following best describes the study of biochemistry?
Which of the following best describes the study of biochemistry?
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What is a key distinction between elements and compounds?
What is a key distinction between elements and compounds?
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What type of radiation is primarily associated with the hazards of ionizing radiation?
What type of radiation is primarily associated with the hazards of ionizing radiation?
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Which of the following correctly defines ions, electrolytes, and free radicals?
Which of the following correctly defines ions, electrolytes, and free radicals?
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Which of the following correctly states the functions of minerals in the body?
Which of the following correctly states the functions of minerals in the body?
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What best describes potential energy?
What best describes potential energy?
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In a chemical equation, where are the reactants located?
In a chemical equation, where are the reactants located?
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What defines a reversible reaction?
What defines a reversible reaction?
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What effect does increasing the temperature have on reaction rates?
What effect does increasing the temperature have on reaction rates?
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What is the primary role of catalysts in a chemical reaction?
What is the primary role of catalysts in a chemical reaction?
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How is catabolism related to anabolism?
How is catabolism related to anabolism?
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Which statement accurately describes free energy?
Which statement accurately describes free energy?
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In the context of the law of mass action, what determines the direction of a reaction?
In the context of the law of mass action, what determines the direction of a reaction?
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What defines a mixture as distinct from a compound?
What defines a mixture as distinct from a compound?
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Which of the following properties of water allows it to dissolve a variety of substances?
Which of the following properties of water allows it to dissolve a variety of substances?
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How does water demonstrate its chemical reactivity?
How does water demonstrate its chemical reactivity?
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What is the significance of water's high heat capacity?
What is the significance of water's high heat capacity?
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What is the role of hydration spheres formed by water?
What is the role of hydration spheres formed by water?
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Which of the following correctly describes adhesion in relation to water?
Which of the following correctly describes adhesion in relation to water?
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In which fluid can you find extracellular fluid (ECF)?
In which fluid can you find extracellular fluid (ECF)?
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What percentage of body weight does water typically constitute?
What percentage of body weight does water typically constitute?
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How does water act as an effective coolant for the body?
How does water act as an effective coolant for the body?
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Which of the following best explains thermal stability in water?
Which of the following best explains thermal stability in water?
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What is the primary reason carbon is well suited for forming the structure of biological molecules?
What is the primary reason carbon is well suited for forming the structure of biological molecules?
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What type of reaction involves the formation of a polymer from monomers?
What type of reaction involves the formation of a polymer from monomers?
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What is a characteristic feature of carbohydrates?
What is a characteristic feature of carbohydrates?
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What distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
What distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
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Which of the following describes the structure of a phospholipid?
Which of the following describes the structure of a phospholipid?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of carbohydrates?
Which of the following is NOT a function of carbohydrates?
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What is the role of enzymes in biological processes?
What is the role of enzymes in biological processes?
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Which of these is considered a polysaccharide?
Which of these is considered a polysaccharide?
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What type of bond links amino acids together in proteins?
What type of bond links amino acids together in proteins?
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Which statement accurately describes the general structure of a nucleotide?
Which statement accurately describes the general structure of a nucleotide?
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What is the main function of triglycerides in the human body?
What is the main function of triglycerides in the human body?
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Which lipid is characterized by its structure of four fused carbon rings?
Which lipid is characterized by its structure of four fused carbon rings?
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What are glycolipids primarily involved in?
What are glycolipids primarily involved in?
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What structure do proteins take when they are composed of 15 to 50 amino acids?
What structure do proteins take when they are composed of 15 to 50 amino acids?
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Which statement best describes the composition of HDL cholesterol?
Which statement best describes the composition of HDL cholesterol?
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Which statement accurately describes an isotope?
Which statement accurately describes an isotope?
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What constitutes approximately 98.5% of body weight?
What constitutes approximately 98.5% of body weight?
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What is a cation?
What is a cation?
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Which type of bond is characterized by the equal sharing of electrons?
Which type of bond is characterized by the equal sharing of electrons?
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Which of the following elements is not considered a trace element?
Which of the following elements is not considered a trace element?
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What role do free radicals play in the body?
What role do free radicals play in the body?
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What type of bond is formed by the attraction between cations and anions?
What type of bond is formed by the attraction between cations and anions?
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Which statement about valence electrons is true?
Which statement about valence electrons is true?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of stable isotopes?
Which of the following is a characteristic of stable isotopes?
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What is the primary function of minerals in the body?
What is the primary function of minerals in the body?
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Which form of chemical bond is easily broken by water?
Which form of chemical bond is easily broken by water?
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What is a compound in chemistry?
What is a compound in chemistry?
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Which vitamins are considered antioxidants?
Which vitamins are considered antioxidants?
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Flashcards
Biochemistry
Biochemistry
The study of molecules in living organisms, including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Elements vs Compounds
Elements vs Compounds
Elements are pure substances; compounds are combinations of elements.
Functions of Minerals
Functions of Minerals
Minerals support various bodily functions such as building bones, carrying oxygen, and nerve transmission.
Ions and Electrolytes
Ions and Electrolytes
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Types of Chemical Bonds
Types of Chemical Bonds
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Element
Element
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Atomic Number
Atomic Number
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Periodic Table
Periodic Table
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Trace Elements
Trace Elements
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Minerals
Minerals
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Protons
Protons
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Electrons
Electrons
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Isotopes
Isotopes
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Ions
Ions
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Free Radicals
Free Radicals
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Antioxidants
Antioxidants
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Molecule
Molecule
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Covalent Bond
Covalent Bond
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Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen Bond
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Polar Covalent Bond
Polar Covalent Bond
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Energy
Energy
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Potential Energy
Potential Energy
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Chemical Energy
Chemical Energy
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Chemical Reaction
Chemical Reaction
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Reversible Reactions
Reversible Reactions
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Law of Mass Action
Law of Mass Action
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Catabolism
Catabolism
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Anabolism
Anabolism
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Acid
Acid
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Base
Base
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pH scale
pH scale
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Buffers
Buffers
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Mixture
Mixture
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Water's Role in Body
Water's Role in Body
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Solvency
Solvency
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Cohesion
Cohesion
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Adhesion
Adhesion
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Chemical Reactivity of Water
Chemical Reactivity of Water
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Heat Capacity
Heat Capacity
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Hydration Spheres
Hydration Spheres
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Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
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Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
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Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
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Carbon Backbone
Carbon Backbone
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Functional Groups
Functional Groups
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Polymers
Polymers
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Dehydration Synthesis
Dehydration Synthesis
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Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
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Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides
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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
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Triglycerides
Triglycerides
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Phospholipids
Phospholipids
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Amino Acids
Amino Acids
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Peptide Bond
Peptide Bond
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Enzymes
Enzymes
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Nucleotides
Nucleotides
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Study Notes
Chapter 1
- This chapter is on the major themes in anatomy and physiology, specifically the unity of form and function.
Introduction
- Biochemistry is the study of molecules that make up living organisms including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- Biochemistry is important for understanding cellular structures, basic physiology, nutrition, and health.
2.1 Atoms, lons, and Molecules
- Learning outcomes include identifying the body's elements from their symbols, differentiating between elements and compounds, and describing the functions of minerals in the body.
- It also involves understanding radioactivity, ionizing radiation, ions, electrolytes, and free radicals.
- Students will define different types of chemical bonds.
The Chemical Elements 1
- An element is the simplest form of matter with unique chemical properties.
- Atomic number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of an element.
- The periodic table arranges elements by atomic number, and each element is represented by a one- or two-letter symbol.
- Six elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus) account for about 98.5% of body weight.
- Trace elements, present in minute amounts, also play vital roles.
- 24 elements have biological roles.
The Chemical Elements 2
- Minerals are inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants, and passed up the food chain to humans.
- Minerals constitute approximately 4% of body weight, with calcium and phosphorus comprising about 3%.
- Other minerals include chlorine, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and sulfur.
- Minerals are crucial for body structure (e.g., crystals in teeth and bones) and enzyme function.
- Electrolytes are mineral salts essential for nerve and muscle function.
Atomic Structure
- The nucleus is the center of an atom.
- Protons have a positive charge and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu).
- Neutrons have no charge and a mass of 1 amu.
- Atomic mass is roughly equivalent to the total number of protons and neutrons.
- Electrons surround the nucleus in concentric clouds.
- Electrons have a negative charge and very low mass.
- An atom is electrically neutral because the number of electrons equals the number of protons.
- Valence electrons, in the outermost shell, determine chemical bonding properties of an atom.
Bohr Planetary Models of Three Representative Elements
- Diagrams illustrate atomic structure, including protons, neutrons, and electrons for carbon, nitrogen, and sodium.
- Atomic number and mass are shown for each element along with diagrams showing electron shells.
Isotopes and Radioactivity 1
- Isotopes are variants of an element differing only in the number of neutrons.
- Extra neutrons increase atomic weight.
- Isotopes of the same element share similar chemical properties due to equal numbers of valence electrons.
- Atomic weight (relative atomic mass) accounts for the isotope mixture in an element.
- Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes that decay and emit radiation.
- Every element contains at least one radioisotope.
lons, Electrolytes, and Free Radicals 1
- Ions are charged atoms or molecules with unequal numbers of protons and electrons.
- Ionization involves transferring electrons between atoms.
- Anions are negatively charged particles (due to gaining electrons).
- Cations are positively charged particles (due to losing electrons).
- Ions with opposite charges attract each other.
lonization
- Diagrams illustrate electron transfer between sodium and chlorine atoms to form sodium and chloride ions.
- This is shown to result in sodium chloride (NaCl).
lons, Electrolytes, and Free Radicals 3
- Free radicals are short-lived particles with unusual electron numbers.
- These are produced by normal metabolic processes, radiation, and certain chemicals.
- Free radicals trigger reactions that damage molecules, contributing to cancer, heart tissue damage, and aging.
- Antioxidants neutralize free radicals.
- Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is an antioxidant enzyme.
- Selenium, vitamin E, vitamin C, and carotenoids are antioxidants obtained through diet.
Molecules and Chemical Bonds 1
- Molecules are particles composed of two or more atoms joined by a chemical bond.
- Compounds are molecules composed of two or more different elements.
- Molecular formulas identify constituent elements and the number of atoms of each.
- Structural formulas indicate the location of each atom.
- Isomers are molecules with identical molecular formulas but different arrangements of atoms.
Molecules and Chemical Bonds 3
- Chemical bonds hold atoms together within a molecule or attract molecules to each other.
- Common bond types : ionic, covalent, hydrogen, and van der Waals forces.
- Ionic bonds are the attraction of a cation to an anion and are easily disrupted by water.
- Covalent bonds form when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Single covalent bonds involve sharing one pair of electrons, and double covalent bonds involve sharing two pairs.
Single Covalent Bond
Double Covalent Bond
- Diagrams illustrate single and double covalent bonds using hydrogen and oxygen molecules, respectively.
Molecules and Chemical Bonds 4
- Nonpolar covalent bonds involve equal sharing of electrons.
- Polar covalent bonds feature unequal sharing of electrons, with electrons spending more time near the more electronegative element (often oxygen).
Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds
- Diagrams illustrate nonpolar and polar covalent bonds using carbon-carbon and oxygen-hydrogen bonds.
Molecules and Chemical Bonds 5
- Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between slightly positive hydrogen atoms and slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atoms in different molecules.
- Hydrogen bonds are important in physiology, influencing water properties and large molecule structure.
Hydrogen Bonding of Water
- Diagrams illustrate hydrogen bonding between water molecules.
2.2 Water and Mixtures
- Learning outcomes include defining mixtures and compounds, and describing water’s important properties.
- It shows how different types of mixtures are distinguished.
- Defining acids and bases and interpreting pH scales is covered.
- Methods of expressing and interpreting solution concentration are discussed.
Water and Mixtures
- Mixtures consist of physically blended, but not chemically combined, substances.
- Body fluids are complex mixtures of chemicals.
- Water comprises 50-75% of body weight.
- The percentage varies among individuals depending on factors like age, sex, and fat content.
Water 1
- Water has properties that support life due to its polar covalent bonds and V-shape. Properties like its ability to act as a solvent, ability to cling to itself (cohesion) and other molecules (adhesion) are important. Water's chemical reactivity and thermal stability properties are discussed.
Water 3
- Water's attraction to ions (such as Na+ and Cl−) in ionic compounds (like NaCl) is stronger than the ionic bonds themselves.
- Water forms hydration spheres around the ions.
- This process causes the salt to dissolve.
Water 5
- Water participates in chemical reactions.
- It ionizes into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−).
- Water ionizes various other chemicals (salts and acids).
- Water is crucial in decomposition (hydrolysis) and synthesis (dehydration synthesis) reactions.
Water 6
- Water has a high heat capacity, meaning it needs a considerable amount of heat to change temperature.
- This helps stabilize body temperature.
- Hydrogen bonds within water molecules resist temperature increases by obstructing molecular motion.
- Water is an effective coolant; one milliliter of perspiration removes approximately 500 calories of heat.
ICF, ECF, Blood
- Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid inside cells.
- Extracellular fluid (ECF) encompasses fluids surrounding cells, including blood plasma and interstitial fluid.
Acids, Bases, and pH1
- Acids are proton donors, releasing hydrogen ions (H+) in water.
- Bases are proton acceptors, receiving hydrogen ions (H+) or releasing hydroxide ions (OH−).
- pH measures acidity based on hydrogen ion concentration; a lower pH indicates higher acidity.
- A pH of 7.0 is neutral.
- A blood pH that's slightly basic is crucial for physiological functions of the body.
- Buffers resist pH shifts.
2.3 Energy and Chemical Reactions
- Learning outcomes include defining energy and work, describing energy types, how chemical reactions symbolically are represented as equations, and listing fundamental types of chemical reactions.
- Also identifying factors that govern the speed and direction of reactions, defining metabolism, and relating oxidation and reduction to energy changes within a molecule.
Energy and Work 1
- Energy is the capacity to perform work, which involves moving an object.
- Potential energy is stored energy, like water behind a dam.
- Chemical energy is stored in molecular bonds, a type of potential energy.
- Free energy is potential energy available in a system to perform useful work.
Classes of Chemical Reactions 1
- Chemical reactions involve the breaking or formation of covalent or ionic bonds.
- Chemical equations symbolize these reactions, with reactants on the left, an arrow, and products on the right.
Classes of Chemical Reactions 3
- Reversible reactions proceed in either direction under differing conditions.
- They are symbolized with a double-headed arrow.
- An example reaction (CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3− + H+) is crucial in bodily systems.
- The Law of Mass Action governs reaction direction based on the relative abundance of reactants and products.
- Equilibrium occurs when the ratio of products to reactants remains constant.
Reaction Rates
- Reactions need molecules to collide with enough force and correct orientation.
- Factors increasing reaction rates include higher reactant concentration and an elevated temperature.
- Catalysts (like enzymes) speed up reactions by lowering activation energy requirements.
- Enzymes aren’t consumed in a reaction and can repeat the process.
Metabolism, Oxidation, and Reduction 1
- Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions within the body.
- Catabolism includes exergonic (energy-releasing) breakdown processes that break covalent bonds, producing smaller molecules.
- Anabolism encompasses endergonic (energy-requiring) synthesis processes, creating larger molecules like proteins and fats.
- Catabolism and anabolism work together in metabolic processes.
2.4 Organic Compounds
- Learning outcomes of this section include explaining the suitablity of carbon in forming biological molecules, identifying basic functional groups, explaining polymerization and hydrolysis, explaining functions of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, describing enzyme function, exploring ATP, and identifying other nucelotides and nucleic acids.
Carbon Compounds and Functional Groups 1
- Organic chemistry studies carbon-containing compounds.
- Four primary categories are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbon Compounds and Functional Groups 2
- Carbon’s four valence electrons allow it to form four covalent bonds with other atoms.
- Carbon readily bonds with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements to create complex molecules (chains, branches, and rings).
- Functional groups are small clusters of atoms attached to the carbon chain.
- They influence molecular properties and are crucial in various biological processes.
Functional Groups of Organic Molecules
- Diagrams/Tables illustrating the structures, symbols and locations of hydroxyl, methyl, carboxyl, amino and phosphate functional groups with example molecules where they occur.
Monomers and Polymers 1
- Macromolecules are large organic molecules with high molecular weights.
- Polymers are macromolecules composed of a repeating series of similar or identical subunits (monomers).
- An example is starch, a polymer consisting of thousands of glucose monomers.
- Polymerization involves joining monomers to create polymers.
Monomers and Polymers 2
- Dehydration synthesis (condensation) joins monomers through covalent bonding. A molecule of water is removed during the process.
- Hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers by adding a water molecule. Enzymes facilitate both processes.
Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis Reactions
- Diagrams illustrating the processes of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis through reaction arrows, and water molecule inclusion.
Carbohydrates 1
- Carbohydrates are hydrophilic organic molecules, meaning they are water-soluble. Key examples are sugars and starches.
- The general formula for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n, where 'n' represents the number of carbon atoms.
- Glucose (C6H12O6) is a fundamental carbohydrate with a 2:1 hydrogen to oxygen ratio.
- Carbohydrate names typically use 'sacchar-' and '-ose' as prefixes and suffixes (e.g., sucrose, glucose).
Carbohydrates 2
- Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates.
- Important monosaccharides include glucose, galactose, and fructose. These are isomers of each other (same chemical formula, different structures).
- Monosaccharides are created by the digestion of complex carbohydrates.
- Glucose is the blood sugar.
Carbohydrates 3
- Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds.
- Sucrose, lactose, and maltose are important disaccharides.
Carbohydrates 4
- Oligosaccharides are short chains of three or more monosaccharides (at least 10 units).
- Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides (at least 50 units), including glycogen, starch, and cellulose.
- Glycogen, starch, and cellulose serve distinct functions, like energy storage and structure in different kingdoms (plants vs. animals).
Carbohydrates 5
- Carbohydrates are readily converted(digestion) to glucose(a source of energy),
- Carbohydrates are often attached to proteins and lipids (glycoproteins, glycolipids) acting as signaling molecules on cell surfaces..
- Proteoglycans, predominantly carbohydrate, provide structural support in tissues.
Lipids 1
- Lipids are hydrophobic organic molecules characterized by a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, and contain more calories per gram than carbohydrates.
- Important types include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, and steroids.
Lipids 2
- Fatty acids are chains of 4 to 24 carbon atoms with a carboxyl group at one end(the acidic end).
- Fatty acids are classified as saturated (no double bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more double bonds).
- Essential fatty acids must be obtained from the diet.
- Unsaturated fatty acids contain double bonds, altering their properties
Lipids 3
- Triglycerides (neutral fats) are composed of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule.
- Dehydration synthesis forms these.
- Dietary oils and fats serve as energy storage, insulation, and padding.
Triglyceride (Fat) Synthesis 1
- Diagrams illustrating the formation of triglycerides using glycerol and different fatty acids.
Trans Fats and Cardiovascular Health
- Trans fats are unsaturated fatty acids but have unusual structural properties of their bonds. This affects their breakdown by human enzymes, often leading to accumulation and potential cardiac concerns.
- Cis-fatty acids, have different bond arrangements and are typically processed more easily by enzymes within the body.
Lipids 4
- Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group. This creates an amphipathic molecule (hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic head), key components of cell membranes.
Lipids 6
- Steroids are lipids with four interconnected carbon rings, a fundamental structure for numerous types of molecules. Cholesterol is a crucial precursor to other steroid hormones.
- About 85% of bodily cholesterol is created internally, mostly in the liver; 15% is obtained from diet.
'Good' and 'Bad' Cholesterol
- HDL ("good" cholesterol) has a high ratio of protein to lipid. HDL's functions include lipid circulation, and a possible connection to preventing cardiovascular issues.
- LDL ("bad" cholesterol) has a higher ratio of lipid to protein. LDL contributes to cardiovascular problems.
Proteins 1
- Proteins are polymers of amino acids, essential components in the human body.
- Amino acids have a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a radical group (R group).
- The R group defines the specific properties of each amino acid.
- Twenty different amino acids are involved in protein synthesis.
Amino Acids
- Detailed illustrations of examples of nonpolar and polar amino acids and their structural features.
Proteins 2
- Peptides are composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
- Peptide bonds form by dehydration synthesis reactions, linking the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the next.
- Peptides are named by the number of amino acids they contain (dipeptides, tripeptides, oligopeptides, polypeptides, and proteins).
Peptide Bond Formation
- Diagrams/illustrations illustrating the formation of peptide bond through dehydration synthesis with amino acids.
Protein Structure 1
- Protein conformation is the unique 3D structure critically essential for a protein's function. Proteins can have their shape altered through various actions, but the shape is often preserved through processes in the human body.
- Denaturation is a permanent change in a protein's conformation which disrupts its function due to external stressors (temperature, pH shifts). Structural changes affect function as these alter their activity and binding sites.
Protein Structure 2
- Primary structure specifies the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
- Secondary structures (alpha helix, beta-pleated sheet) are held together by hydrogen bonds between different parts of the polypeptide chain.
- Secondary structure creates folds in the polypeptide chain forming local spatial structures.
Protein Structure 3
- Tertiary structure encompasses the further bending and folding of secondary structures, generating a protein's overall 3-dimensional shape.
- This shape is determined by interactions among R groups and with water, like hydrophobic interactions or Van der Waals forces.
Protein Structure 4
- Quaternary structure arises from interactions between multiple polypeptide chains.
- Hemoglobin, for instance, possesses four peptide chains.
Protein Functions 1
- Proteins play a structural role, for instance through Keratin found on hair, nails, skin and Collagen in skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth.
- Proteins play crucial communication roles, such as neurotransmitters, hormones, and other signaling molecules. The structures and interactions of these molecules and ligands that signal specific interactions.
Protein Functions 2
- Proteins facilitate membrane transport, facilitating the movement of substances across cell membranes, such as through channels or carriers.
- Proteins act as catalysts known as enzymes, which accelerate physiological reactions by lowering the activation energy needed for initiating reactions.
- Proteins contribute to immune recognition through glycoproteins and antibodies. Antibodies and glycoproteins also participate in immune recognitions and responses.
Protein Functions 3
- Some proteins facilitate movement, such as motor proteins.
- Other proteins are essential for cell adhesion, binding cells together for tissue formation and structure.
Enzymes and Metabolism
- Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts. They lower the activation energy needed to begin a reaction and increase reaction rates.
- Substrates are molecules acted upon by enzymes.
- Enzyme names often end in -ase. The names help identify their assigned substrates. Examples include amylase (breaks down starch) and lactase (breaks down lactose).
Enzyme Structure and Action 1
- Enzymes have active sites where substrates bind.
- Binding forms an enzyme-substrate complex.
- Enzymes exhibit specificity; specific substrates fit specific enzymes like a lock and key.
- After the reaction, products are released, and the enzyme remains unchanged to repeat the process.
Enzyme Structure and Action 2
- Enzymes are reused, not consumed in the reaction.
- They can catalyze millions of reactions per minute.
- Environmental factors (temperature, pH) can affect enzyme shape and function. Enzyme activity is optimized under specific conditions; some react better (have higher rates) under specific pH values.
- Optimal enzymes are most effective, and will catalyze reactions at the highest reaction rates.
ATP, Other Nucleotides, and Nucleic Acids
- ATP is the main energy currency in the body.
- Nucleotides include nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphate groups.
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a fundamental energy carrier in biological processes.
- cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) functions as a signaling molecule.
ATP and cAMP
- Illustration of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) structures with labeled components (ribose, adenine and phosphate groups).
Adenosine Triphosphate 1
- ATP is the body's primary energy-transfer molecule.
- Exergonic reactions provide energy for ATP formation.
- ATP releases energy quickly for physiological functions.
- Chemical energy is stored within covalent bonds, especially within the phosphate groups.
- Energy transfer often involves removing or adding phosphate groups to ATP.
Adenosine Triphosphate 2
- ATPases are enzymes catalyzing the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP + phosphate + energy.
- Phosphorylation (addition of the phosphate group) is an enzymatic process vital for different pathways in the body.
Source and Uses of ATP
- Glucose oxidation releases energy stored in its bonds which is used to create ATP. ATP then provides energy to the cell in the process of muscle contraction, active transport, and numerous other metabolic activities in the body.
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids are polymers composed of nucleotides.
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contains genetic instructions for protein synthesis.
- RNA (ribonucleic acid) carries out genetic instructions for assembling proteins, with different types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) playing distinct roles. Different lengths specify different functions within proteins.
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