Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which type of carbohydrate is formed by linking two monosaccharides together?
Which type of carbohydrate is formed by linking two monosaccharides together?
- Monosaccharide
- Disaccharide (correct)
- Polysaccharide
- Oligosaccharide
What is the primary role of polysaccharides like glycogen in the body?
What is the primary role of polysaccharides like glycogen in the body?
- Transmitting signals
- Storing energy (correct)
- Forming the cell membrane
- Cell attachment
Which statement best describes triglycerides?
Which statement best describes triglycerides?
- They are nonpolar molecules formed from three fatty acid chains and glycerol. (correct)
- They are involved in forming glycoproteins.
- They are the building blocks of proteins.
- They have a complex structure that includes a phosphate group.
Which of the following is NOT a function of lipids in the body?
Which of the following is NOT a function of lipids in the body?
Which structure is characteristic of steroids?
Which structure is characteristic of steroids?
What type of sugar is glucose categorized as?
What type of sugar is glucose categorized as?
What is the significance of glycoproteins and glycolipids in cellular functions?
What is the significance of glycoproteins and glycolipids in cellular functions?
Where is glycogen primarily stored in the human body?
Where is glycogen primarily stored in the human body?
What is the primary role of thrombin in the blood clotting process?
What is the primary role of thrombin in the blood clotting process?
Which phase of hemostasis involves the formation of a platelet plug?
Which phase of hemostasis involves the formation of a platelet plug?
What role does prostacyclin play in blood clotting?
What role does prostacyclin play in blood clotting?
How does the intrinsic pathway of the clotting cascade initiate?
How does the intrinsic pathway of the clotting cascade initiate?
What triggers the process of fibrinolysis?
What triggers the process of fibrinolysis?
Which protein is crucial for the stabilization of the platelet plug?
Which protein is crucial for the stabilization of the platelet plug?
In the clotting cascade, what is the result of the positive feedback mechanism initiated by thrombin?
In the clotting cascade, what is the result of the positive feedback mechanism initiated by thrombin?
Which two molecules are produced by healthy endothelial cells to inhibit platelet activation?
Which two molecules are produced by healthy endothelial cells to inhibit platelet activation?
What is an essential requirement for the intrinsic pathway of the clotting cascade?
What is an essential requirement for the intrinsic pathway of the clotting cascade?
Which conditions can result from dysfunctional blood clotting mechanisms?
Which conditions can result from dysfunctional blood clotting mechanisms?
What is a primary function of enzymes in biological reactions?
What is a primary function of enzymes in biological reactions?
What is the primary structural arrangement of phospholipids in the cell membrane?
What is the primary structural arrangement of phospholipids in the cell membrane?
How does the 'induced fit' model of enzyme action differ from the 'lock and key' model?
How does the 'induced fit' model of enzyme action differ from the 'lock and key' model?
What type of interaction do enzymes predominantly utilize for substrate binding?
What type of interaction do enzymes predominantly utilize for substrate binding?
What type of transport does the sodium-potassium pump exemplify?
What type of transport does the sodium-potassium pump exemplify?
Which enzyme is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix during replication?
Which enzyme is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix during replication?
In DNA replication, what is the function of RNA primers?
In DNA replication, what is the function of RNA primers?
What term describes the segments of the lagging strand in DNA replication?
What term describes the segments of the lagging strand in DNA replication?
Which of the following best describes the semi-conservative model of DNA replication?
Which of the following best describes the semi-conservative model of DNA replication?
During transcription, the enzyme responsible for synthesizing mRNA is?
During transcription, the enzyme responsible for synthesizing mRNA is?
What signifies the start of transcription in a DNA sequence?
What signifies the start of transcription in a DNA sequence?
What role do transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules play in translation?
What role do transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules play in translation?
What is a characteristic feature of the triplet code used in mRNA?
What is a characteristic feature of the triplet code used in mRNA?
Which of the following statements about the triplet code is true?
Which of the following statements about the triplet code is true?
What does the term degeneracy of the genetic code imply?
What does the term degeneracy of the genetic code imply?
Which type of bulk transport involves the incorporation of substances into the cell?
Which type of bulk transport involves the incorporation of substances into the cell?
What do transport proteins primarily facilitate in cellular processes?
What do transport proteins primarily facilitate in cellular processes?
What is the significance of the environment in enzyme active sites?
What is the significance of the environment in enzyme active sites?
Which type of catalysis is primarily involved in acid/base reactions by enzymes?
Which type of catalysis is primarily involved in acid/base reactions by enzymes?
What is Km interpreted as in enzyme kinetics?
What is Km interpreted as in enzyme kinetics?
What role do cofactors play in enzyme activity?
What role do cofactors play in enzyme activity?
Which enzyme is NOT an example of one that uses acyl-substitution reactions?
Which enzyme is NOT an example of one that uses acyl-substitution reactions?
What is the primary feature of the Michaelis-Menten curve?
What is the primary feature of the Michaelis-Menten curve?
Which of the following influences enzyme activity?
Which of the following influences enzyme activity?
What is the primary limitation of the Lineweaver-Burk Plot?
What is the primary limitation of the Lineweaver-Burk Plot?
What does the ratio kcat/Km indicate?
What does the ratio kcat/Km indicate?
Which type of kinetics occurs at low substrate concentrations?
Which type of kinetics occurs at low substrate concentrations?
What is Vmax in enzyme kinetics?
What is Vmax in enzyme kinetics?
Which of the following is NOT a type of enzyme?
Which of the following is NOT a type of enzyme?
What is meant by enzyme saturation?
What is meant by enzyme saturation?
What assumption is made in the steady-state model of enzyme kinetics?
What assumption is made in the steady-state model of enzyme kinetics?
What role does aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase play in protein synthesis?
What role does aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase play in protein synthesis?
Which component of ribosomes is responsible for the formation of peptide bonds?
Which component of ribosomes is responsible for the formation of peptide bonds?
What is the primary structure of a protein defined by?
What is the primary structure of a protein defined by?
What characterizes an alpha-helix in protein structure?
What characterizes an alpha-helix in protein structure?
Which statement about beta-sheets is true?
Which statement about beta-sheets is true?
What triggers the termination of the translation process?
What triggers the termination of the translation process?
Which type of bond is formed between two cysteine residues to stabilize protein structure?
Which type of bond is formed between two cysteine residues to stabilize protein structure?
What influences the stability of tertiary and quaternary protein structures?
What influences the stability of tertiary and quaternary protein structures?
How do hydrogen bonds contribute to protein structure?
How do hydrogen bonds contribute to protein structure?
Which correct statement describes the ribosome composition in eukaryotic cells?
Which correct statement describes the ribosome composition in eukaryotic cells?
What is primarily disrupted by agents like heat and pH extremes regarding proteins?
What is primarily disrupted by agents like heat and pH extremes regarding proteins?
What indicates that an amino acid is chiral?
What indicates that an amino acid is chiral?
What defines the process of elongation in translation?
What defines the process of elongation in translation?
Which factor affects the speed of translation in bacteria?
Which factor affects the speed of translation in bacteria?
What characterizes an antagonist in receptor pharmacology?
What characterizes an antagonist in receptor pharmacology?
What is the main difference between reversible and irreversible antagonism?
What is the main difference between reversible and irreversible antagonism?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for inhibitory signaling in the CNS?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for inhibitory signaling in the CNS?
What does the Schild plot help to quantify?
What does the Schild plot help to quantify?
The presence of which of the following is NOT a criterion for identifying a neurotransmitter?
The presence of which of the following is NOT a criterion for identifying a neurotransmitter?
How does synaptic integration occur?
How does synaptic integration occur?
What is the function of acetylcholinesterase in the synaptic cleft?
What is the function of acetylcholinesterase in the synaptic cleft?
What initiates the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal?
What initiates the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal?
Which receptors does acetylcholine act upon?
Which receptors does acetylcholine act upon?
What is the primary role of excitatory synapses in the brain?
What is the primary role of excitatory synapses in the brain?
What does the term '-ergic' imply about a neuron?
What does the term '-ergic' imply about a neuron?
Which of the following describes the action potential?
Which of the following describes the action potential?
Which neurotransmitter acts predominantly through GABA receptors?
Which neurotransmitter acts predominantly through GABA receptors?
What is the typical action potential threshold for a neuron?
What is the typical action potential threshold for a neuron?
What is the primary role of voltage-gated ion channels during an action potential?
What is the primary role of voltage-gated ion channels during an action potential?
Which phase of the action potential involves the rapid change of membrane potential to a positive value?
Which phase of the action potential involves the rapid change of membrane potential to a positive value?
What happens during the absolute refractory period of an action potential?
What happens during the absolute refractory period of an action potential?
How does saltatory conduction enhance the speed of action potential propagation?
How does saltatory conduction enhance the speed of action potential propagation?
Which ion is primarily responsible for the depolarization phase of an action potential?
Which ion is primarily responsible for the depolarization phase of an action potential?
What condition is caused by the destruction of myelin-producing cells?
What condition is caused by the destruction of myelin-producing cells?
What is the typical resting membrane potential of neurons?
What is the typical resting membrane potential of neurons?
What mechanism does the sodium-potassium pump primarily use to maintain membrane potential?
What mechanism does the sodium-potassium pump primarily use to maintain membrane potential?
During the hyperpolarisation phase, what happens to the membrane potential?
During the hyperpolarisation phase, what happens to the membrane potential?
Which type of neuron is characterized by having only one process that splits into two branches?
Which type of neuron is characterized by having only one process that splits into two branches?
What effect does demyelination have on sensory and motor nerve function?
What effect does demyelination have on sensory and motor nerve function?
Which factor primarily influences the velocity of action potential propagation?
Which factor primarily influences the velocity of action potential propagation?
What is the major difference between graded potentials and action potentials?
What is the major difference between graded potentials and action potentials?
Which scientist was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906 for discoveries related to neurons?
Which scientist was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906 for discoveries related to neurons?
What is the value of kcat calculated in the context of enzyme kinetics?
What is the value of kcat calculated in the context of enzyme kinetics?
Which type of enzyme inhibition is characterized by a decrease in Km while Vmax remains unchanged?
Which type of enzyme inhibition is characterized by a decrease in Km while Vmax remains unchanged?
What is the role of Ki in enzyme inhibition?
What is the role of Ki in enzyme inhibition?
Which of the following statements is true about non-competitive inhibition?
Which of the following statements is true about non-competitive inhibition?
What is the significance of the Lineweaver-Burk plot in enzyme kinetics?
What is the significance of the Lineweaver-Burk plot in enzyme kinetics?
What is defined as the concentration of drug required for 50% reduction in activity?
What is defined as the concentration of drug required for 50% reduction in activity?
How is kcat/Km significant in enzyme kinetics?
How is kcat/Km significant in enzyme kinetics?
Which statement describes a mechanism-based inhibitor?
Which statement describes a mechanism-based inhibitor?
What happens to Km and Vmax in uncompetitive inhibition?
What happens to Km and Vmax in uncompetitive inhibition?
What characterizes tight-binding inhibitors?
What characterizes tight-binding inhibitors?
How can pharmacology be defined?
How can pharmacology be defined?
What is the primary function of receptors in pharmacology?
What is the primary function of receptors in pharmacology?
Which family of receptors opens in response to ligand binding?
Which family of receptors opens in response to ligand binding?
What is a common example of a drug that targets enzyme activity?
What is a common example of a drug that targets enzyme activity?
What can increase the potency of an inhibitor?
What can increase the potency of an inhibitor?
What happens to kinase-linked receptors upon ligand-receptor engagement?
What happens to kinase-linked receptors upon ligand-receptor engagement?
Which of the following receptors is associated with gene expression upon ligand binding?
Which of the following receptors is associated with gene expression upon ligand binding?
What does EC50 represent in pharmacology?
What does EC50 represent in pharmacology?
What is a defining characteristic of a partial agonist?
What is a defining characteristic of a partial agonist?
How do reversible competitive antagonists affect the concentration-response curve?
How do reversible competitive antagonists affect the concentration-response curve?
What type of modulation occurs when allosteric modulators bind to sites other than the orthosteric site?
What type of modulation occurs when allosteric modulators bind to sites other than the orthosteric site?
The maximal response produced by an agonist is referred to as what?
The maximal response produced by an agonist is referred to as what?
What distinguishes inverse agonists from regular agonists?
What distinguishes inverse agonists from regular agonists?
What concept describes the phenomenon where different agonists produce different effects through the same receptor?
What concept describes the phenomenon where different agonists produce different effects through the same receptor?
What effect do irreversible competitive antagonists have on the Emax and EC50 of an agonist?
What effect do irreversible competitive antagonists have on the Emax and EC50 of an agonist?
Which of the following best characterizes the role of receptor agonists?
Which of the following best characterizes the role of receptor agonists?
What is the primary use of a Schild Plot in pharmacology?
What is the primary use of a Schild Plot in pharmacology?
Which parameter is essential for comparing the efficacy of different agonists?
Which parameter is essential for comparing the efficacy of different agonists?
What is the relationship between potency and EC50 values?
What is the relationship between potency and EC50 values?
What do allosteric agonists do when they bind to receptors?
What do allosteric agonists do when they bind to receptors?
What is the primary function of α1 adrenoceptors?
What is the primary function of α1 adrenoceptors?
Which receptor subtype is primarily responsible for inhibiting the release of norepinephrine (NA)?
Which receptor subtype is primarily responsible for inhibiting the release of norepinephrine (NA)?
What role does the sarcoplasmic reticulum play in skeletal muscle contraction?
What role does the sarcoplasmic reticulum play in skeletal muscle contraction?
Which of the following is NOT a part of a reflex arc?
Which of the following is NOT a part of a reflex arc?
Which muscle type is characterized by voluntary control?
Which muscle type is characterized by voluntary control?
What is the functional unit of skeletal muscle called?
What is the functional unit of skeletal muscle called?
Which adrenoceptor subtype is involved in bronchodilation?
Which adrenoceptor subtype is involved in bronchodilation?
What physiological response is associated with the sympathetic nervous system?
What physiological response is associated with the sympathetic nervous system?
Which type of receptors are involved in the sense of taste?
Which type of receptors are involved in the sense of taste?
Which of the following is a characteristic of slow-twitch muscle fibres?
Which of the following is a characteristic of slow-twitch muscle fibres?
What physiological role do β3 adrenoceptors primarily regulate?
What physiological role do β3 adrenoceptors primarily regulate?
What components are involved in proprioception?
What components are involved in proprioception?
What neurotransmitter is primarily released at the neuromuscular junction to initiate muscle contraction?
What neurotransmitter is primarily released at the neuromuscular junction to initiate muscle contraction?
What is the role of the oculomotor nerve in the pupil constriction reflex?
What is the role of the oculomotor nerve in the pupil constriction reflex?
What is the primary characteristic of smooth muscle cells compared to skeletal muscle cells?
What is the primary characteristic of smooth muscle cells compared to skeletal muscle cells?
How do calcium ions contribute to smooth muscle contraction?
How do calcium ions contribute to smooth muscle contraction?
What distinguishes single unit smooth muscle from multi-unit smooth muscle?
What distinguishes single unit smooth muscle from multi-unit smooth muscle?
What is the main function of the intercalated discs in cardiac muscle?
What is the main function of the intercalated discs in cardiac muscle?
Which organ systems primarily utilize smooth muscle?
Which organ systems primarily utilize smooth muscle?
What is the role of Interstitial cells of Cajal in the gastrointestinal tract?
What is the role of Interstitial cells of Cajal in the gastrointestinal tract?
What is a key feature of smooth muscle contraction regulation?
What is a key feature of smooth muscle contraction regulation?
What type of muscle has a fusiform shape and lacks visible striations?
What type of muscle has a fusiform shape and lacks visible striations?
Which mechanisms are involved in smooth muscle relaxation?
Which mechanisms are involved in smooth muscle relaxation?
How do neurotransmitters affect smooth muscle contraction?
How do neurotransmitters affect smooth muscle contraction?
What structural component is absent in smooth muscle cells that is found in skeletal muscle cells?
What structural component is absent in smooth muscle cells that is found in skeletal muscle cells?
Which feature differentiates vascular smooth muscle cells from other smooth muscle types?
Which feature differentiates vascular smooth muscle cells from other smooth muscle types?
Which properties are associated with smooth muscle contraction?
Which properties are associated with smooth muscle contraction?
What type of relationship do neurotransmitter receptors have with smooth muscle contraction?
What type of relationship do neurotransmitter receptors have with smooth muscle contraction?
What primarily composes thin filaments in skeletal muscle?
What primarily composes thin filaments in skeletal muscle?
Which troponin component binds to calcium to regulate muscle contraction?
Which troponin component binds to calcium to regulate muscle contraction?
What is the primary function of the neuromuscular junction?
What is the primary function of the neuromuscular junction?
What structural feature allows cardiac muscle cells to act as a functional syncytium?
What structural feature allows cardiac muscle cells to act as a functional syncytium?
What initiates contraction in cardiac muscle?
What initiates contraction in cardiac muscle?
Which component is responsible for the strong structural support between cardiomyocytes?
Which component is responsible for the strong structural support between cardiomyocytes?
How does calcium release contribute to muscle contraction?
How does calcium release contribute to muscle contraction?
Which type of muscle fibre is characterized by slower contraction rates and more aerobic metabolic properties?
Which type of muscle fibre is characterized by slower contraction rates and more aerobic metabolic properties?
What occurs when ATP binds to myosin in skeletal muscle?
What occurs when ATP binds to myosin in skeletal muscle?
What is a characteristic of the pacemaker action potential?
What is a characteristic of the pacemaker action potential?
What is the role of catecholamines in cardiac muscle function?
What is the role of catecholamines in cardiac muscle function?
Which condition is characterized by dilatation of the left ventricle due to genetic mutations?
Which condition is characterized by dilatation of the left ventricle due to genetic mutations?
What is the function of the sodium-calcium exchanger in cardiac muscle cells?
What is the function of the sodium-calcium exchanger in cardiac muscle cells?
What important biochemical event happens during the activation of muscle contraction?
What important biochemical event happens during the activation of muscle contraction?
What primarily establishes the resting membrane potential in neurons?
What primarily establishes the resting membrane potential in neurons?
Which equation is used to calculate the resting membrane potential?
Which equation is used to calculate the resting membrane potential?
What is the approximate equilibrium potential for K+ in a real neuron?
What is the approximate equilibrium potential for K+ in a real neuron?
What is the primary ion responsible for establishing the resting membrane potential in neurons?
What is the primary ion responsible for establishing the resting membrane potential in neurons?
Which equation is used to calculate the equilibrium potential for any ion?
Which equation is used to calculate the equilibrium potential for any ion?
What aspect of the cerebral cortex is demonstrated through Brodmann's areas?
What aspect of the cerebral cortex is demonstrated through Brodmann's areas?
Which neurotransmitter is involved in the 'fight or flight' response of the sympathetic nervous system?
Which neurotransmitter is involved in the 'fight or flight' response of the sympathetic nervous system?
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in brain function?
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in brain function?
Which structure receives sensory input that is mapped in a homunculus?
Which structure receives sensory input that is mapped in a homunculus?
Which neurotransmitter was first discovered by Otto Loewi?
Which neurotransmitter was first discovered by Otto Loewi?
What is the primary function of the adrenal glands in the autonomic nervous system?
What is the primary function of the adrenal glands in the autonomic nervous system?
What type of receptors do adrenaline and noradrenaline primarily affect in the body?
What type of receptors do adrenaline and noradrenaline primarily affect in the body?
In which part of the central nervous system does the thalamus play a key role?
In which part of the central nervous system does the thalamus play a key role?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for the 'rest and digest' response?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for the 'rest and digest' response?
What is the role of postganglionic fibers in the autonomic nervous system?
What is the role of postganglionic fibers in the autonomic nervous system?
What is the main distinction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
What is the main distinction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
The Goldman equation takes into account which of the following factors?
The Goldman equation takes into account which of the following factors?
Flashcards
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
A type of biological molecule that includes sugars, starches, and cellulose. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and serve as a source of energy, structural components, and signaling molecules.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
The smallest unit of carbohydrates, also known as simple sugars. Examples include glucose and fructose. They are hydroxylated aldehydes or ketones that often exist in ring-closed forms and serve as building blocks for larger carbohydrates.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharide units linked together by a glycosidic bond. Examples include sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar).
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
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Lipids
Lipids
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Steroids
Steroids
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Fatty acids
Fatty acids
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Triglycerides
Triglycerides
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What are phospholipids?
What are phospholipids?
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Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetase
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What is a lipid bilayer?
What is a lipid bilayer?
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What is diffusion?
What is diffusion?
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Peptide Bond
Peptide Bond
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Ribosomes in Eukaryotes
Ribosomes in Eukaryotes
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What is osmosis?
What is osmosis?
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What are protein transporters?
What are protein transporters?
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Translation Process
Translation Process
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What is the Sodium-Potassium pump?
What is the Sodium-Potassium pump?
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Initiation (Translation)
Initiation (Translation)
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What is endocytosis?
What is endocytosis?
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Elongation (Translation)
Elongation (Translation)
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What is exocytosis?
What is exocytosis?
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Termination (Translation)
Termination (Translation)
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What is transcription?
What is transcription?
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Protein Sequence
Protein Sequence
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α-Helix
α-Helix
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What is translation?
What is translation?
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What is a codon?
What is a codon?
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β-Sheet
β-Sheet
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What is DNA replication?
What is DNA replication?
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Tertiary Structure
Tertiary Structure
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Quaternary Structure
Quaternary Structure
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What is tRNA?
What is tRNA?
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What is helicase?
What is helicase?
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Non-Covalent Interactions
Non-Covalent Interactions
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What is DNA polymerase?
What is DNA polymerase?
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Disulphide Bridge
Disulphide Bridge
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Protein Structure Disruption
Protein Structure Disruption
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Blood clotting (Haemostasis)
Blood clotting (Haemostasis)
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Primary Haemostasis
Primary Haemostasis
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Secondary Haemostasis
Secondary Haemostasis
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Platelet Plug Formation
Platelet Plug Formation
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von Willebrand Factor (vWF)
von Willebrand Factor (vWF)
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Extrinsic Pathway
Extrinsic Pathway
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Intrinsic Pathway
Intrinsic Pathway
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Thrombin
Thrombin
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Enzyme
Enzyme
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Lock and Key Model
Lock and Key Model
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Induced Fit Model
Induced Fit Model
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Enzyme Catalysis
Enzyme Catalysis
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Thermodynamic Catalysis
Thermodynamic Catalysis
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Chemical Catalysis
Chemical Catalysis
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Gelation
Gelation
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Agonist
Agonist
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Affinity
Affinity
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Efficacy
Efficacy
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Concentration-response curve
Concentration-response curve
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Emax
Emax
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EC50
EC50
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Potency
Potency
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Partial agonist
Partial agonist
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Inverse agonist
Inverse agonist
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Biased agonism
Biased agonism
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Antagonist
Antagonist
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Competitive antagonist
Competitive antagonist
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Irreversible antagonist
Irreversible antagonist
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Allosteric modulator
Allosteric modulator
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pA2 value
pA2 value
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Km
Km
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kcat
kcat
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Enzyme Inhibitor
Enzyme Inhibitor
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Competitive Inhibition
Competitive Inhibition
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Non-competitive Inhibition
Non-competitive Inhibition
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Uncompetitive Inhibition
Uncompetitive Inhibition
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Tight-binding Inhibition
Tight-binding Inhibition
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Irreversible Inhibition
Irreversible Inhibition
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Pharmacology
Pharmacology
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Receptor
Receptor
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Ligand
Ligand
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Signal transduction
Signal transduction
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Reversible Antagonism
Reversible Antagonism
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Schild Plot
Schild Plot
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Synapse
Synapse
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Chemical Synapse
Chemical Synapse
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Electrical Synapse
Electrical Synapse
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Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
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Neurotransmitter Release
Neurotransmitter Release
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Neurotransmitter Receptors
Neurotransmitter Receptors
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Ionotropic Receptors
Ionotropic Receptors
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Metabotropic Receptors
Metabotropic Receptors
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Neuromuscular Junction
Neuromuscular Junction
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What are active sites?
What are active sites?
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What are cofactors and coenzymes?
What are cofactors and coenzymes?
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What is enzyme stereospecificity?
What is enzyme stereospecificity?
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How do enzymes increase the rate of reactions?
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What types of chemistry are involved in enzyme reactions?
What types of chemistry are involved in enzyme reactions?
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What are the different types of enzymes and their functions?
What are the different types of enzymes and their functions?
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Describe the acyl-substitution reaction mechanism.
Describe the acyl-substitution reaction mechanism.
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How does chymotrypsin work?
How does chymotrypsin work?
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Explain the mechanisms by which enzymes lower activation energy.
Explain the mechanisms by which enzymes lower activation energy.
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What is enzyme kinetics?
What is enzyme kinetics?
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What is the Michaelis-Menten model?
What is the Michaelis-Menten model?
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What is the Michaelis-Menten curve?
What is the Michaelis-Menten curve?
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Why do enzyme reactions saturate?
Why do enzyme reactions saturate?
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What is the Michaelis-Menten equation?
What is the Michaelis-Menten equation?
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Describe enzyme kinetics at low and high substrate concentrations.
Describe enzyme kinetics at low and high substrate concentrations.
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What are the assumptions of the steady-state model?
What are the assumptions of the steady-state model?
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Hypopolarisation
Hypopolarisation
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Depolarisation
Depolarisation
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Overshoot
Overshoot
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Repolarisation
Repolarisation
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Hyperpolarisation/Undershoot
Hyperpolarisation/Undershoot
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Voltage-gated ion channels
Voltage-gated ion channels
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Absolute refractory period
Absolute refractory period
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Relative refractory period
Relative refractory period
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Action potential propagation
Action potential propagation
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Saltatory conduction
Saltatory conduction
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Schwann cell
Schwann cell
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Demyelination
Demyelination
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Graded potentials
Graded potentials
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Dendrite
Dendrite
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Soma
Soma
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Axon
Axon
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Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
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Neurons
Neurons
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Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine
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Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine
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Muscarinic Receptor
Muscarinic Receptor
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Adrenoceptor
Adrenoceptor
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Flexor Reflex
Flexor Reflex
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Reflex Arc
Reflex Arc
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Proprioception
Proprioception
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Photoreceptor
Photoreceptor
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Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
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Sarcomere
Sarcomere
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Muscle Contraction
Muscle Contraction
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What establishes the resting membrane potential?
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
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What are potassium leak channels?
What are potassium leak channels?
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What is the Nernst equation and what does it calculate?
What is the Nernst equation and what does it calculate?
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What is the Goldman equation and how does it differ from the Nernst equation?
What is the Goldman equation and how does it differ from the Nernst equation?
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What are the major landmarks of the human brain?
What are the major landmarks of the human brain?
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What is the somatosensory cortex and what does it do?
What is the somatosensory cortex and what does it do?
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What is the motor cortex and what does it do?
What is the motor cortex and what does it do?
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What are Wernicke's and Broca's areas and what roles they play?
What are Wernicke's and Broca's areas and what roles they play?
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What are neurotransmitters?
What are neurotransmitters?
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What is the sympathetic nervous system?
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
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What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
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What are preganglionic and postganglionic fibers?
What are preganglionic and postganglionic fibers?
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What are preganglionic and postganglionic fibers?
What are preganglionic and postganglionic fibers?
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What is acetylcholine (ACh) and why is it important?
What is acetylcholine (ACh) and why is it important?
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What are adrenoceptors and muscarinic receptors?
What are adrenoceptors and muscarinic receptors?
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Sliding Filament Mechanism
Sliding Filament Mechanism
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Troponin C
Troponin C
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Troponin I
Troponin I
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Troponin T
Troponin T
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Tropomyosin
Tropomyosin
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Myosin
Myosin
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Actin
Actin
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Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
Acetylcholine (ACh)
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Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
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Fast-Twitch Fiber
Fast-Twitch Fiber
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Slow-Twitch Fiber
Slow-Twitch Fiber
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Myosin Heavy Chain
Myosin Heavy Chain
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Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
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Intercalated Discs
Intercalated Discs
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What is the structure of cardiac muscle?
What is the structure of cardiac muscle?
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What role do pacemaker cells play in the heart?
What role do pacemaker cells play in the heart?
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Describe smooth muscle.
Describe smooth muscle.
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What is single-unit smooth muscle?
What is single-unit smooth muscle?
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What is multi-unit smooth muscle?
What is multi-unit smooth muscle?
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How does smooth muscle contraction occur?
How does smooth muscle contraction occur?
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How is smooth muscle contraction terminated?
How is smooth muscle contraction terminated?
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Where does calcium come from during smooth muscle contraction?
Where does calcium come from during smooth muscle contraction?
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What factors regulate smooth muscle contraction?
What factors regulate smooth muscle contraction?
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What role do interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) play in gastric motility?
What role do interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) play in gastric motility?
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Describe peristalsis.
Describe peristalsis.
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How is smooth muscle stimulated by nerves?
How is smooth muscle stimulated by nerves?
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Describe the acetylcholine receptor family.
Describe the acetylcholine receptor family.
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How is smooth muscle involved in lung diseases?
How is smooth muscle involved in lung diseases?
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How are vascular smooth muscle cells involved in atherosclerosis?
How are vascular smooth muscle cells involved in atherosclerosis?
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Study Notes
Cell Membrane Structure and Function
- Cell membranes are composed primarily of phospholipids forming a lipid bilayer, with polar head groups facing water and lipophilic tails facing each other.
- Cholesterol and proteins are also embedded within the membrane, influencing its fluidity and function.
- Membranes exhibit selective permeability, allowing some molecules to pass more easily than others, based on factors like size and charge.
- Molecules move across membranes through diffusion, osmosis, protein transporters (passive and active), and vesicular transport (endocytosis/exocytosis).
- Specific transport proteins, like the sodium-potassium pump, use energy (ATP) to move ions against their concentration gradients.
Biological Molecules
- Biological molecules include nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), proteins (amino acids, polypeptides), lipids (fatty acids, triglycerides, steroids), and carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides).
- Carbohydrates are crucial for energy storage and cell structure. Monosaccharides (glucose, galactose) form disaccharides (sucrose) and polysaccharides (glycogen), storing glucose for energy.
- Lipids, including triglycerides (stored in adipose tissue), phospholipids (major component of cell membranes), and steroids (e.g., cholesterol, hormones), have diverse functions.
DNA Replication
- DNA replication is semi-conservative, with each new DNA molecule containing one original and one newly synthesized strand.
- Helicase unwinds the DNA double helix.
- Single-strand binding proteins prevent re-annealing.
- Topoisomerase relieves the stress on the DNA molecule.
- RNA primers are needed for DNA polymerase to begin adding nucleotides.
- DNA polymerase builds new strands in the 5' to 3' direction.
- The lagging strand is synthesized in Okazaki fragments.
- DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments.
- Proofreading mechanisms ensure high accuracy (1 in 1 billion base pairing errors).
DNA Functions: Replication, Transcription, and Translation
- DNA stores genetic information and directs protein synthesis through transcription and translation
- Transcription produces mRNA from a DNA template.
- RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA in 5'→3'.
- Transcription begins at promoters and ends at terminator sequences. RNA polymerase termination occurs when it encounters specific sequences like T-rich region or hairpin loops.
- Translation uses mRNA to translate the code into a polypeptide chain in ribosomes.
Amino Acids and Protein Structure
- Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
- The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids.
- Secondary structures include α-helices and β-sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
- Tertiary structure is the overall 3D arrangement of the polypeptide chain.
- Quaternary structure involves the interaction of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits).
- Protein structure is stabilized by multiple weak non-covalent interactions (hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, salt bridges, van der Waals) and occasionally covalent bonds (disulfide bridges).
Enzyme Function and Catalysis
- Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
- Enzymes bind substrates in the active site (using induced fit and lock-and-key models).
- Most enzymes use cofactors and/or coenzymes (derived from vitamins and minerals).
- Enzymes are often stereospecific, meaning they catalyze reactions selectively.
Enzyme Kinetics
- Enzyme kinetics describes how enzyme activity varies with substrate concentration.
- The Michaelis-Menten equation describes the relationship between reaction rate and substrate concentration (factors Km and Vmax).
- Vmax is the maximum reaction rate.
- Km is the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half of Vmax.
- kcat is the turnover number, or the maximum number of substrate molecules an enzyme can convert per unit time.
- kcat/Km is a measure of enzyme efficiency.
Enzyme Inhibition
- Inhibitors bind to enzymes and reduce their activity, affecting Km and/or Vmax.
- Various types of inhibition exist (competitive, non-competitive, mixed, uncompetitive, irreversible).
- Inhibitors, like drugs, can be used to treat various diseases.
Pharmacology and Receptors
- Receptors are proteins that respond to external signals, initiating intracellular response.
- Various receptor types exist (ligand-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, kinase-linked receptors, nuclear receptors).
- Drugs target these receptors (and other proteins) to treat diseases.
- Agonists activate receptors, and antagonists block them.
- Different types of agonists (full, partial, inverse, biased) exhibit various effects.
Neurotransmission and Synapses
- Neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons at synapses.
- Criteria for identifying neurotransmitters include presence, release, receptor specificity, and removal mechanisms.
- Neurotransmitters are categorized (e.g., amines, amino acids).
- Synapses are chemical or electrical, with chemical synapses using neurotransmitters.
Action Potentials and Graded Potentials
- Neurons communicate through action potentials, which are rapid, transient changes in membrane voltage.
- Action potentials follow the "all-or-none" law, requiring a threshold stimulus to occur.
- Phases include depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization.
- Refractory periods prevent rapid and repeated firing.
- Propagation occurs through local current spread, affected by myelination and axon diameter.
- Graded potentials are local changes in membrane potential, varying in magnitude.
Neuron Structure and Function
- Neurons have distinct cellular structures (dendrites, soma, axon).
- Different neuron types exist (multipolar, unipolar, bipolar, and anaxonic).
- Neurons are electrically excitable, with a resting membrane potential.
Brain Anatomy and Function
- The brain has distinct regions (cortex, cerebellum, midbrain, brainstem) with specialized functions.
- Function localization is described by Brodmann's areas. Neural pathways connect brain regions.
Autonomic Nervous System
- The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions, divided into sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) divisions.
- Different neurotransmitters and receptor types are involved (e.g., acetylcholine, adrenaline, noradrenaline; various subtypes of adrenergic & muscarinic receptors).
Reflexes and Senses
- Reflexes involve a stimulus, a receptor, an afferent pathway, an integration center, an efferent pathway, and an effector.
- Different sensory modalities exist (touch, sight, smell, taste).
Skeletal Muscle
- Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle attached to bone.
- Its functional unit is the sarcomere, containing myosin and actin filaments, regulated by troponin-tropomyosin.
- Sliding filament mechanism drives muscle contraction.
- The neuromuscular junction is the site of synapse between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
Cardiac Muscle
- Cardiac muscle is involuntary, branched, interconnected, and electrically coupled.
- Cardiac myocytes are joined by intercalated discs.
- Pacemaker cells in the SA node spontaneously generate action potentials.
- Calcium-induced calcium release is a key component of cardiac excitation-contraction coupling.
Smooth Muscle
- Smooth muscle is involuntary, found in various organs, and characterized by its fusiform shape.
- Its contraction mechanism involves calcium, calmodulin, and myosin light-chain kinase.
- Smooth muscle contraction and relaxation are regulated by various factors (neural input, hormones, stretch).
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Description
Test your knowledge on carbohydrates, lipids, and their functions in the human body. This quiz covers key concepts such as the structure of triglycerides, the role of polysaccharides, and the functions of glycoproteins and glycolipids. Perfect for students studying biological macromolecules.
