Biology: Introduction to Science and Chemistry

Chapter 1 - Intro to Science

• The control group doesn't receive experimental treatment.
• Control variables are kept constant during an experiment.
• The independent variable is manipulated to study its effect.
• The dependent variable changes in response to the independent variable.
• Quantitative data involves mathematical models and statistical techniques.
• Qualitative data involves descriptive characteristics.
• Every scientific experiment starts with observation and questioning.
• Heart rate is the dependent variable when testing the effects of exercise type.
• The goals includes describing, predicting, and explaining.
• A hypothesis is a statement, not a question.
• Scientists should be skeptical and open-minded.

Chapter 2 - Chemistry of Life

• Ionic bonds form when electrons transfer between atoms.
• Covalent bonds involve atoms sharing electrons to achieve an octet.
• Polarity is when molecules exhibit uneven charge distribution (e.g., water).
• An ion is an atom with a positive or negative charge.
• Valence electrons are in the outer shell and facilitate bonding.
• Atoms seek a full octet of 8 valence electrons.
• An isotope is a form of an element with the same protons but different neutrons.
• Cohesion is attraction between like molecules.
• Adhesion is attraction between different molecules.
• Suspension is water mixed with non-dissolved substances (e.g., blood).
• Acquiring two electrons results in an atom becomes -2.
• A triple bond shares 6 electrons.
• Titanium-64 has 22 protons.
• Lithium-44 has 41 neutrons.
• Water's cohesion and adhesion enable capillary action.
• Attractions between water molecules are hydrogen bonds.
• Water is a universal solvent due to its polarity, dissolving ionic and polar compounds.
• Bases have a pH over 7, while acids have a pH under 7.
• Hydrogen atoms give the positive charge to water molecules.
• Carbohydrates function as an energy source for cells.
• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the building blocks of life.
• Enzymes catalyze reactions.
• Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

Chapter 4/5 - Ecosystems, Communities & Populations

• The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot occupy the same niche in the same habitat.
• Interspecific competition occurs between different species.
• Intraspecific competition occurs among members of the same species.
• A niche is the organism's role in an ecosystem.
• Mutualism benefits both species in a relationship.
• Commensalism benefits one organism and doesn't affect the other.
• Parasitism benefits one organism and harms the other.
• Abiotic factors are nonliving factors shaping an ecosystem.
• Biotic factors are living components of the environment.
• Carrying capacity is the maximum population size an environment can sustain.
• Demography involves the study of population characteristics.
• Limiting factors restrict where an organism can live.
• A population is a group of the same species in an area.
• A community includes all populations in an area.
• Healthy predator-prey dynamics prevent overpopulation.
• Primary succession occurs in areas without prior biotic communities.
• Secondary succession follows a disturbance without destroying the soil.
• The Earth's axial tilt causes the seasons.
• Exponential growth occurs in ideal conditions, accelerating with population size.
• Logistic growth slows and stops after exponential growth.
• Density-dependent factors include competition, predation, parasitism, disease.
• Natural disasters are density-independent factors.
• Organisms with slow reproduction rarely grow exponentially.
• The Industrial Revolution caused exponential human growth.

Chapter 7 - Cell Structure & Function

• Robert Hooke discovered cells by observing cork under a microscope.
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek built microscopes and observed unicellular organisms.
• Matthias Schleiden discovered that plants are made of cells.
• Theodor Schwann concluded all animals are made up of cells.
• Rudolf Virchow stated that all cells come from other cells.
• The nucleus controls the cell and contains DNA.
• The Golgi apparatus sorts, modifies, and packages proteins.
• The cell wall supports, shapes, and protects plant cells.
• Lysosomes break down molecules and organelles that are not useful.
• Ribosomes produce proteins using DNA instructions.
• Vacuoles store water, salts, and molecules.
• Osmosis is water diffusion through a permeable membrane.
• Diffusion moves particles from high to low concentration areas.
• Exocytosis involves vesicles fusing with the cell membrane to expel contents.
• Aquaporins are water channel proteins.
• The cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic units of life, and all cells come from other cells.
• Scanning electron microscopes produce 3D black and white images, while transmission electron microscopes allow seeing through the cell.
• Phospholipid bilayers have two layers of polar heads and nonpolar tails.
• Hydrophilic parts are attracted water, while hydrophobic parts face away.

Chapter 8 - Photosynthesis

• A granum is a stack of thylakoids in a chloroplast.
• The stroma is the fluid around the thylakoid membrane involved in organic molecule synthesis.
• Rubisco is the most abundant protein, performing carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle.
• A calorie is measures the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree C.
• Energy is released from ATP when a phosphate group is removed.
• ATP is comparable to a battery needing to be recharged.
• Reactants for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water, while products are oxygen and glucose.
• Chlorophyll replenishes electrons in the thylakoid during photosynthesis.
• When light strikes electrons in the thylakoid, they become energized.
• Light-dependent reactions occur on the thylakoid membranes, converting solar energy into ATP and NADPH, with oxygen as a byproduct.
• Light-independent reactions are the Calvin cycle.
• Violet carries the most energy, and red carries the least energy in the color spectrum.
• ATP and NADPH both transport electrons in photosynthesis.
• Six G3P molecules make one molecule of glucose.
• Protein pumps transport hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane.
• Three molecules needed to form NADPH are NADP+, one electron, and ATP.
• G3P has an aldehyde functional group at the carbon-3 position, while 3-PGA has a carboxylic acid functional group at the carbon 3 position.
• Three parts of the ATP molecule are adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.

Chapter 9 - Cellular Respiration

• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
• The Kreb's cycle occurs in the matrix.
• Glycolysis breaks down glucose and makes pyruvic acid.
• The Krebs cycle and ETC are aerobic processes.
• Glycolysis is an anaerobic process.
• The Citric acid cycle is another name for the Krebs cycle.
• The equation for cellular respiration includes glucose and oxygen as reactants, producing carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP).
• Glycolysis produces the most ATP during cellular respiration.
• Oxygen is the final electron acceptor during cellular respiration.
• 4000 (4C) calories are in a proteins and carbohydrates, while there are 9000 (9C) calories are in fats.

Chapter 10 - Cell Growth and Division

• Asexual reproduction offers quick reproduction without a mate, resulting in genetic clones without diversity.
• Sexual reproduction creates genetic diversity within a species and new adaptation, but requires a mate.
• Stages of mitosis include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
• Cells spend most of their life in interphase.
• DNA must be copied before cells can divide.
• G1 phase (cell growth), S phase (DNA replication), and G2 phase (preparation for mitosis) are the three substages interphase
• The centromere is where two chromatids are held together.
• In animals cytokinesis leads to the cell membrane pinching inward and in plants a cell plate forms.
• Resulting fruit fly daughter cells after mitosis will have 16 chromosomes (if body cells have 8 chromosomes).
• Human body cells normally have 46 chromosomes.
• Malignant tumors invade and destroy surrounding tissue, whereas benign tumors don't spread and cause harm.

Chapter 11 - Introduction to Genetics

• A diploid cell contains two sets of chromosomes (2n).
• A haploid cell contains one set of chromosomes (n).
• A zygote is a fertilized egg.
• A blastula is a hollow ball of cells in early embryonic development.
• Crossing over is when homologous chromosomes exchange portions of chromatids during meiosis.
• Polygenic is an inheritance pattern which occurs when when there are three or more alternative forms of a trait.
• Incomplete dominance occurs when one allele is not completely dominant over another allele, whereas codominance has express both alleles for a gene.
• Inheritance pattern of eye color is Multiple alleles and polygenic traits.
• Meiosis produces 4 daughter cells.

Chapter 12 - DNA

• Frederick Griffith discovered transformation during an experiment with mice and different types of cells.
• Oswald Avery discovered that nucleic acid in DNA stores and transmits genetic information.
• Alfred Hershey Proved that DNA was the genetic material of viruses therefore it is thought to be the genetic material of many.
• Rosalind Franklin provided Watson and Crick provided key dats about DNA.
• Erwin Chargaff Discovered that in DNA composition varies that the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and as cytosine is always the same as guanine.
• Three parts of a DNA nucleotide includes sugar, phosphate, & nitrogen base.
• Nitrogenous bases uses hydrogen bonds.
• The sequence (order) of the Nitrogen Bases in DNA stored information.
• If a DNA sample that has 30% adenine, would expect to find 20% guanine.
• The enzyme that unzips the DNA is DNA helicase.
• DNA polymerase assembles nucleotides and "checks" them.

Chapter 13 - RNA & Protein Synthesis

• Molecules serve the template for the production of RNA is one of the two strands of DNA.
• If a DNA sequence is ACA GTG, would be coded on mRNA as GUG ACA.
• Copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complementary sequence in RNA in transcription.
• Transcription takes place in the cell’s nucleus.
• Process where the information carried by mRNA is used to produce proteins.
• Translation takes place in the cytoplasm.
• Carry copies of the genetic from DNA to other parts of the cell.
• The function of rRNA is to form ribosomes.
• Transfers each amino acid to the ribosomes since it’s specified by the coded messages of the mRNA
• AUG; Methionine is the universal stating codon.
• There is one amino acid coded per codon.

Chapter 25 - Introduction to Animals

• A flexible rod that supports a chordate's back is the notochord
• Cephalization happens when concentration of nerve tissue and sensory organs occur at the anterior of an organism.
• Endodermal Tissue is the innermost layer.
• Mesodermal Tissue is the middle layer.
• Ectodermal Tissue is the outermost layer.
• Dorsal points towards the back.
• Ventral points towards the belly.
• Left and right sides are mirror images, with front and back are present is when in bilateral symmetry.
• Radial Symmetry occurs when Body parts extend from central point.

Chapter 27 - Animal Systems

• Spriracles are breathing tubes in which insects are located on their abdomens.
• Alveoli are Tiny sacs of lung tissue which specialize in moving gases between air and blood
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels.
• The Upper heart chamber that receives blood in the atrium.
• The Lower chamber of the heart is the ventricle.
• Budding occurs when new individuals are created from outgrowths of the body wall.
• Oviparous occurs The embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished by the egg yolk.
• Ovoviviparous occurs when producing young by eggs which are hatched within the body of the parent.
• Viviparous occurs when producing living young (not eggs).
• Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth.
• Carnivores consumers have short digestive tracts and produce fast acting enzymes.
• Mutualistic happens in relationships between bacteria which are found in the human stomach .
• Single circulatory system is found in fish.
• Four chambers are found in the human heart.
• Open circulatory system is found Arthropods and mollusks.
• Birds vertebrate have the the most efficient respiratory.