Biology - Glucose Breakdown and Amino Acids
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Biology - Glucose Breakdown and Amino Acids

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What is a primary advantage of the slow breakdown of glucose?

  • It allows for more control over energy release. (correct)
  • It results in a rapid release of energy.
  • It is highly destructive to the cell.
  • It cannot be effectively utilized.

    • Which of the following is true about fast breakdown of glucose?

  • It is less destructive to cells.
  • It does not result in energy loss.
  • It is more efficient than slow breakdown.
  • It causes energy to be lost as heat and light. (correct)

    • Under which conditions does pyruvate acid convert to lactic acid in humans?

  • In the mitochondria.
  • In the presence of glucose.
  • Aerobic conditions.
  • Anaerobic conditions. (correct)

    • What is a key disadvantage of fast breakdown of glucose?

    <p>It does not allow for energy storage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What energy-related characteristic does slow breakdown possess compared to fast breakdown?

    <p>It facilitates effective utilization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of organism primarily converts pyruvate acid into ethanol?

    <p>Yeasts under anaerobic conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be concluded about the efficiency of slow breakdown versus fast breakdown of glucose?

    <p>Slow breakdown is more efficient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the energy release between slow and fast breakdown of glucose?

    <p>Slow breakdown leads to gradual energy release.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which amino acids are characterized by having little or no polarity in their side chains?

    <p>Non-polar Amino Acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of amino acids is more soluble in water due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds?

    <p>Polar Amino Acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structural parts make up an amino acid?

    <p>Amino Group &amp; Carboxylic Group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the properties and appearance of an amino acid?

    <p>The R-side Chain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Acidic amino acids typically have a pH of?

    <p>7.0</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature distinguishes hydrophobic amino acids from others?

    <p>Their lack of interaction with polar molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following amino acid types is not directly attributed with water solubility?

    <p>Non-polar Amino Acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of polar amino acids?

    <p>They can form hydrogen bonds with water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stabilizes the tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins?

    <p>Disulphide bonds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of protein structure is defined by the sequence of amino acids?

    <p>Primary structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of interactions are primarily responsible for the formation of secondary structures in proteins?

    <p>Hydrogen bonds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding tertiary structure?

    <p>It forms the 3D structure by interactions of secondary structures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which secondary structure is characterized by a coiled shape?

    <p>a-helix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily contributes to the stability of protein structures through non-covalent means?

    <p>Hydrophobic interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the secondary structure of a protein?

    <p>It includes the formation of structures like a-helices and B-pleated sheets.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of protein structure, what is a disulphide bond?

    <p>A covalent bond formed between cysteine residues that enhances stability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ligase in biochemical reactions?

    <p>Formation of bonds with ATP cleavage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes how the active site of an enzyme is formed?

    <p>Due to the protein folding process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Lock & Key Hypothesis, how does the substrate interact with an enzyme?

    <p>It fits precisely into the active site</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the Induced Fit Hypothesis from the Lock & Key Hypothesis?

    <p>The active site changes shape slightly during binding in Induced Fit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of the Lock & Key Hypothesis regarding enzyme specificity?

    <p>Only substrates with similar shapes can bind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During ATP hydrolysis, what is released as a product?

    <p>Phosphate group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is typically a consequence of the shape change in the substrate during the Induced Fit hypothesis?

    <p>Increased binding affinity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bond formation does ligase facilitate?

    <p>Covalent bonds during ATP hydrolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of molecule is glucose?

    <p>A carbohydrate monomer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is glucose not stored in the body?

    <p>It is water-soluble and diffuses out of cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure of glycogen?

    <p>A highly branched carbohydrate polymer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does branching play in glycogen structure?

    <p>Allows for rapid release of glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a non-reducing end in glycogen?

    <p>An end that can release glucose rapidly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why cannot ATP be stored in the body?

    <p>It is unstable and dissolves in water quickly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to ATP when it is used for energy?

    <p>It breaks down to ADP and inorganic phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of a high carbohydrate diet?

    <p>Higher amounts of glucose during digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is produced when NAD+ undergoes reduction?

    <p>NADH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glyceraldehyde is a pentose monosaccharide formed in carbohydrate metabolism.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the role of an enzyme in metabolic reactions?

    <p>Enzymes are proteins that speed up reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Catabolism is the process that builds up substances in the body.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary process that involves the creation of larger molecules from smaller monomers while releasing water?

    <p>Dehydration synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define 'substrate' in the context of enzyme activity.

    <p>A substrate is a molecule that an enzyme reacts with.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The formula for glyceraldehyde is C~HO______~.

    <p>3 6 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen are called _____ reactions.

    <p>aerobic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components with their respective characteristics:

    <p>NADH = Reduced form of NAD+ Glyceraldehyde = Intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism Dehydration Synthesis = Combines molecules while releasing water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms related to metabolism with their correct definitions:

    <p>Anabolism = Reactions that build up substances Catabolism = Reactions that break down substances Aerobic = Requires oxygen Anaerobic = Does not require oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of slow glucose breakdown?

    <p>It results in slow energy release</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fast breakdown of glucose is generally more efficient than slow breakdown.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which conditions does pyruvate acid convert to lactic acid in humans?

    <p>Under anaerobic conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fast breakdown of glucose leads to energy loss as _____ or _____.

    <p>heat, light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following pathways of pyruvate acid with the correct outcome:

    <p>Humans = Lactic Acid Under anaerobic conditions = Ethanol Yeasts = Ethanol Muscle Tissue = Lactic Acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of fast glucose breakdown compared to slow breakdown?

    <p>Destructive byproducts released</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Slow breakdown of glucose does not contribute to energy storage.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to energy released during fast breakdown?

    <p>It is lost as heat or light.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the solubility of collagen?

    <p>Collagen is tough and insoluble in water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gelatin has a high degree of protein folding similar to collagen.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of collagen in the body?

    <p>Structural component of skin, bones, and connective tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gelatin is formed by breaking the ________ bonds in collagen.

    <p>intermolecular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following proteins with their properties:

    <p>Collagen = High degree of protein folding Gelatin = Jelly-like and soluble in water Insulin = Hormonal function Myosin = Muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of gelatin compared to collagen?

    <p>Gelatin has broken intermolecular bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The amino acid sequence of collagen and gelatin is different.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many chains coil together to form tropocollagen?

    <p>Three chains.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to enzymes when the temperature exceeds 37˚C?

    <p>They denature and lose their function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Low temperatures increase the rate of reaction by enhancing kinetic energy.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to enzyme activity when the pH level deviates from neutrality?

    <p>Enzyme activity decreases due to protein denaturation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When substrate concentration increases, the rate of reaction increases until a __________ point is reached.

    <p>saturation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the factors affecting enzyme activity with their effects:

    <p>Temperature above 37˚C = Denaturation of the enzyme Low temperature = Decreased kinetic energy Improper pH = Protein denaturation Increase enzyme concentration = Increased rate of reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does increasing substrate concentration affect a reaction?

    <p>It increases the probability of collision.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Higher enzyme concentration always leads to a faster reaction rate regardless of substrate availability.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the active site of an enzyme when it denatures?

    <p>The active site is destroyed and cannot bind with the substrate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Glucose Breakdown

    • Slow breakdown releases energy slowly, provides more control, is not destructive, and can be used effectively.
    • Slow breakdown allows for energy to be stored when not needed, making it more efficient.
    • Fast breakdown releases energy quickly, provides less control, is destructive, and cannot be utilized effectively.
    • Fast breakdown results in energy loss as heat and light.

    Pyruvate Acid Pathways

    • Pyruvate acid can be broken down into lactic acid in human connective tissues through anaerobic respiration in the cytosol.
    • Pyruvate acid can be broken down into ethanol through anaerobic respiration in the cytosol.

    Amino Acids

    • Amino acids are monomers that make up proteins.
    • Amino acids consist of an amino group, a carboxylic acid group, and an R-side chain.
    • The R-side chain determines the properties and appearance of the amino acid.
    • Nonpolar amino acids are hydrophobic because there is little to no polarity in their R-side chain.
    • Polar amino acids are hydrophilic because they are more soluble in water and can form hydrogen bonds.
    • Acidic amino acids have a pH of 7.0.
    • Hydrophobic interactions contribute to the stability of protein structures.

    Protein Structure

    • Disulphide bonds stabilize the tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins.
    • The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids, as determined only by peptide bonds.
    • Secondary structure refers to the local folded structures within a protein chain due to interactions between backbone atoms.
    • Secondary structure is shaped by interactions between NH2 and -COOH groups, such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets.
    • Tertiary structure is formed from interactions between secondary structures to form a 3D structure.
    • Tertiary structure involves the interactions of amino acids within a single polypeptide chain; amino acids share the same atomic composition but have different chemical group arrangements.

    Enzyme Activity

    • Ligases are a type of enzyme that catalyzes the formation of bonds using ATP cleavage (ATP hydrolysis).
    • The active site of an enzyme is where the substrate binds.
    • The active site is formed as a result of protein folding involving secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
    • The lock and key hypothesis states that a substrate fits precisely into the active site of an enzyme.
    • The induced fit hypothesis states that the substrate and active site change shape slightly during binding.

    Glycogen

    • Glycogen is a highly branched carbohydrate polymer.
    • Glycogen is less soluble in water than glucose, as it is a larger molecule, and therefore cannot diffuse easily.
    • Alpha- 1,4-glycosidic bonds connect linear alpha-glucose molecules.
    • Alpha-1,6-glycosidic bonds connect branched alpha-glucose molecules.
    • Branching in glycogen increases the rate of glucose release.
    • Branching creates more non-reducing ends, which serve as active sites for enzyme activity, resulting in faster glucose release.

    Reducing vs Non-Reducing Ends

    • Reducing ends have a free carbon number 1 with no branching; they cannot be used for rapid release of glucose.
    • Non-reducing ends do not have a free carbon-1; they have branching and can be used for rapid release of glucose.

    ATP

    • ATP is an unstable molecule that dissolves quickly in water.
    • ATP breakdown releases energy into the environment, forming ADP + Pi.
    • ATP must be constantly regenerated through cellular respiration.
    • ATP is not ideal for long-term storage of energy.

    High Carbohydrate Diets

    • High carbohydrate diets result in high amounts of glucose during digestion.
    • Starch is broken down to glucose during digestion.

    Glucose Breakdown

    • Glucose breakdown involves many steps because slow breakdown provides more control and prevents destructive energy release.
    • Fast breakdown leads to less control and results in energy loss as heat/light.

    Pathways of Metabolism of Pyruvate Acid

    • Lactic Acid: Produced in humans under anaerobic conditions.
    • Ethanol: Produced under anaerobic conditions in the cytosol/cytoplasm of certain organisms.

    Metabolism

    • Anabolism: Reactions that build up substances.
    • Catabolism: Reactions that break down substances.
    • Aerobic: Reactions that require oxygen.
    • Anaerobic: Reactions that do not require oxygen.
    • Substrate: A molecule that an enzyme reacts with.
    • Enzyme: Proteins that speed up metabolic or chemical reactions in the body.
    • Product: Anything produced after a reaction takes place.
    • NADH: Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide; NAD+ is oxidized to NADH.
    • Glyceraldehyde: A triose monosaccharide formed as an intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism, yielding glycerol on reduction.
    • Dehydration Synthesis: The creation of larger molecules from smaller monomers with the release of a water molecule.

    Collagen Formation

    • Collagen is a tightly folded protein composed of three chains that coil together to form tropocollagen.
    • Tropocollagen forms interchain bonds to assemble into collagen fibers.
    • Collagen fibers are tough and insoluble in water.
    • Collagen makes up approximately 30% of bone tissue.

    Gelatin Formation

    • Gelatin is formed from collagen through the breaking of intermolecular and inter-polypeptide chain bonds.
    • Gelatin is soft, jelly-like and soluble in water.

    Collagen vs. Gelatin

    • Collagen: Highly folded protein with stable quaternary structures, insoluble in water, structural component of skin, bones, and tendons.
    • Gelatin: Unfolded protein with no secondary or quaternary structures, soluble in water, provides textural effects.

    Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

    High Temperature

    • Enzymes denature above their optimum temperature (37°C).
    • The active site is destroyed as protein folding is disrupted, preventing substrate binding.

    Low Temperature

    • Lower temperatures decrease kinetic energy, resulting in fewer collisions between substrate and enzyme.

    pH Level

    • Deviation from neutral pH (7) affects electrostatic interactions between acidic and basic amino acids, causing protein denaturation and active site destruction.

    Enzyme Concentration

    • Increasing enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction until substrate becomes the limiting factor.

    Substrate Concentration

    • Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction until saturation point is reached.

    Catalyst

    • Reduces the activation energy of a reaction, speeding up the rate of reaction without altering free energy.

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    Description

    This quiz covers the crucial processes of glucose breakdown, including fast and slow pathways, as well as the role of pyruvate and amino acids in metabolism. Understand how energy is released and stored through these metabolic processes and learn about the structure of amino acids. Test your knowledge on these essential biological concepts.

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