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Questions and Answers

Photoreceptors are primarily located in the skeletal muscles.

False (B)

The axon is responsible for transmitting electrical impulses away from the cell body.

True (A)

Neurofibrils play a role in maintaining the structural support of neurons.

True (A)

Na+ concentration is higher inside the neuron than outside when the neuron is at rest.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Chemically gated channels allow the movement of ions across the neuron membrane in response to voltage changes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Glycolysis occurs in the mitochondria and requires 2 glucose molecules as input.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Krebs Cycle outputs 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 after processing 2 AcetylcoA.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Competitive inhibitors bind to the allosteric site of an enzyme, altering its activity.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anabolism is the process of breaking down large molecules into smaller ones.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Endergonic reactions absorb energy and are considered spontaneous.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The cardiovascular system is responsible for delivering oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The integumentary system includes bones that provide support and mineral storage.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Photosynthesis is an example of an exergonic reaction.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Repolarization involves K+ efflux leading to depolarization of the neuron.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the nucleus, DNA is made up of nucleotide monomers.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During translation, the ribosome reads RNA in the 5' to 3' direction.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Osmosis refers to the movement of H2O across a cell membrane.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stop codons signal the beginning of RNA synthesis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a hypertonic solution, the concentration of solutes is lower than that of the cytosol.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Facilitated diffusion requires the assistance of proteins to move molecules across the cell membrane.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Capping is a process that adds a structure to the end of the mRNA.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Antiport transport mechanisms move two or more molecules in the same direction.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

RNA polymerase is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix during transcription.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During splicing, necessary parts of mRNA are retained while unnecessary parts are removed.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Endocytosis allows cells to take in substances by engulfing them with the cell membrane.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Interphase occurs after mitosis and involves DNA replication.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The phase of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart is called Metaphase.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A resting membrane potential has equal concentrations of Na+ and K+ ions inside and outside the cell.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The epidermis is the deepest layer of the skin.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In receptor-mediated transport, cells can import large quantities of molecules using specific receptors.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cytokinesis results in the division of the cell cytoplasm into two daughter cells.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The sodium-potassium pump actively transports Na+ into the cell while moving K+ out.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Keratinocytes in the stratum basale are primarily responsible for temperature regulation.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The dermis contains blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair follicles.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During G1 phase, cells primarily focus on synthesizing necessary enzymes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stratum corneum is the innermost layer of the epidermis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Melanocytes are responsible for producing keratin.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Programmed cell death is known as apoptosis.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Eccrine glands are primarily found in hair follicles.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The autonomic nervous system controls voluntary muscle movements.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The endoneurium is the outermost layer of connective tissue surrounding a nerve.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Thermoreceptors are a type of sensory receptor that responds to temperature changes.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sebaceous glands secrete a fluid called sweat to cool the body.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ion channels in neuron membranes allow specific ions to pass based on size and charge.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Isotonic Solution

A solution with the same solute concentration as the cytosol of a cell.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cytosol of a cell.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cytosol of a cell.

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from high to low concentration across a membrane (without help).

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Facilitated Diffusion

Movement of molecules across a membrane with protein help.

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Exocytosis

Cell expelling substances by vesicle fusion with the membrane.

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Endocytosis

Cell taking in substances by engulfing with the membrane.

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Cellular Respiration

A metabolic pathway where cells break down glucose to produce ATP energy.

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Sodium-Potassium Pump

Active transport protein that moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in.

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Glycolysis

The first stage of cellular respiration that happens in the cytoplasm.

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Enzyme

A catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in the body.

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Competitive Inhibitor

In enzyme action, a molecule that resembles the substrate and binds to the active site, blocking the substrate.

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Exergonic Reaction

A chemical reaction that releases energy; also known as an energy-releasing reaction.

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Anabolism

The process of building larger molecules from smaller ones

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Integumentary System

The body system that includes skin, hair, and nails, responsible for protection, temperature regulation, etc.

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Nervous System

The system that includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves which controls muscles and glands.

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Repolarization

The process where the membrane potential of a neuron returns to its resting state after depolarization.

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Depolarization

A change in membrane potential that makes the inside of the neuron less negative, moving towards zero.

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Hyperpolarization

A change in membrane potential that makes the inside of the neuron more negative than the resting potential.

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Nucleotide

The building block of DNA, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate group.

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Transcription (RNA)

The process of making RNA from DNA.

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RNA polymerase

The enzyme that builds RNA by reading the DNA template and linking ribonucleotides together during transcription.

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Translation

The process of making a protein from mRNA.

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Codon

A sequence of three nucleotides that specifies a particular amino acid or signals the start or stop of protein synthesis.

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Stratum basale

The deepest layer of the epidermis, responsible for producing keratinocytes, melanocytes, and tactile cells.

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Melanocytes

Cells that produce melanin, a pigment that gives color to skin, hair, nails, and eyes.

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Sweat Glands

Glands that produce sweat to regulate body temperature and keep hydrated.

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Eccrine Sweat Gland

The most common type of sweat gland, opening directly onto the skin surface.

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Apocrine Sweat Gland

Sweat glands found in areas like armpits, groin, and scalp, releasing their secretions into hair follicles.

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Sebaceous Glands

Holocrine glands that produce sebum, an oily substance that lubricates and moisturizes skin and hair.

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Arrector Pili Muscle

A thin smooth muscle that extends from the hair follicle to the dermal papilla, responsible for causing 'goosebumps'.

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Hair Follicle & Hair

Hair, found almost everywhere on the body, is made up of keratinized cells and grows from hair follicles.

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What is prophase?

The first stage of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear membrane breaks down, centrioles move to opposite poles, and the spindle fibers form.

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What is metaphase?

The stage of mitosis where chromosomes line up along the center of the cell, and spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each chromosome.

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What is anaphase?

The stage of mitosis where sister chromatids separate and are pulled apart by the spindle fibers towards opposite poles.

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What is anaphase?

The stage of mitosis where sister chromatids separate and are pulled apart by the spindle fibers towards opposite poles.

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What is telophase?

The final stage of mitosis where the nuclear membrane reforms around each chromosome at the poles, chromosomes decondense, and two separate nuclei form.

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What is cytokinesis?

The division of the cell's cytoplasm into two daughter cells, which occurs after mitosis.

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What are the 3 phases of interphase?

G1, S, and G2 phases.

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What is the epidermis?

The outermost layer of skin, acting as a barrier, preventing water loss and entry of substances/organisms. It's made up of stratified squamous epithelium.

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What are the three types of effectors controlled by the nervous system?

The nervous system controls three types of effectors: muscles, glands, and smooth muscles. Skeletal muscles are responsible for voluntary movement. Smooth muscles are found in organs and are controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Glands secrete hormones in response to nervous signals, also controlled by the ANS.

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What's the role of dendrites in a neuron?

Dendrites are the receiving ends of a neuron. They collect information from other neurons through synapses by receiving electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted to the cell body, or soma, for processing.

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What is the purpose of axons in neurons?

Axons are the transmitting parts of neurons, responsible for carrying electrical impulses or action potentials (AP) away from the cell body (soma). These signals travel to other neurons, muscle cells, or glands to deliver information.

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How do ions contribute to electrical signals in neurons?

Ions like sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) create electrical signals by moving across the neuron's membrane. This movement of ions generates action potentials (AP), which are the basis of nerve impulses.

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What's the role of the phospholipid bilayer in neuronal function?

The phospholipid bilayer forms the structure of the neuron's membrane. It acts as a selective barrier, controlling which substances can enter or exit the cell. This control is vital for maintaining the electrical potential across the membrane and supporting signal transmission.

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Study Notes

Cell Organelles

  • Nucleus: Controls cell activities, regulates gene expression, synthesizes rRNA
  • Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER): Synthesizes proteins
  • Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies toxins, stores calcium ions
  • Mitochondria: Produces ATP ("powerhouse"), modifies, sorts, and packages proteins/lipids for secretion
  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins/lipids for secretion, digests macromolecules, and microorganisms
  • Lysosomes: Digests macromolecules and microorganisms
  • Centrosomes: Organizes microtubules, facilitates cell division
  • Proteosomes: Degrades unneeded or damaged proteins
  • Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support, facilitates movement

Ribosomes

  • Ribosomes (free): Synthesize proteins used within the cytosol
  • Ribosomes (free) transport materials and secrete substances, digest materials

Homeostasis

  • Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment, even when external conditions change
  • Positive Feedback: Variable moves in the same direction until the event occurs; amplifies the change (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth, fruit ripening)
  • Negative Feedback: Variable moves back towards the set point; counteracts a change (e.g., body temperature regulation, blood glucose levels)

Atoms and Elements

  • Atoms: Smallest particle of a substance that cannot be broken down chemically. Composed of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons
  • Elements: Simple substances made of only one type of atom. Cannot be broken down into smaller parts or changed into another substance.

Organic and Inorganic Compounds

  • Organic Compounds: Contain carbon; part of living organisms (e.g., sugars, cellulose, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids).
  • Inorganic Compounds: Do not contain carbon; found in non-living matter (e.g., water, salts, acids, bases).

Metabolism and Cellular Respiration

  • Metabolism: All chemical reactions in a living organism.
  • Cellular Respiration: Metabolic pathway where cells break down glucose to produce ATP. Has four main stages: Glycolysis, Intermediate Stage, Citric Acid Cycle, ETC

Enzymes, Inhibitors, and Activators

  • Enzymes: Catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions
  • Enzymes are regulated by molecules
  • Competitive Inhibitors: Resemble substrates and bind to the active site
  • Non-competitive Inhibitors: Do not resemble substrates, bind to allosteric sites.
  • Activators: Increase enzyme activity (e.g., other molecules, other enzymes)

Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions

  • Exergonic Reactions: Release energy; spontaneous reactions (e.g., cellular respiration)
  • Endergonic Reactions: Absorb energy; non-spontaneous reactions (e.g., photosynthesis)

Anabolism and Catabolism

  • Anabolism: Small molecules are joined to make larger ones
  • Catabolism: Large molecules are broken down into smaller ones

Body Systems

  • Integumentary: Protection, sensation, body temperature regulation
  • Skeletal: Support, movement, protection, mineral storage, blood cell production
  • Muscular: Produces body movements
  • Nervous: Controls muscles and some glands; coordinates digestive and reproductive functions
  • Endocrine: Secretes hormones; maintains homeostasis
  • Cardiovascular: Delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones
  • Lymphatic: Transports and filters lymph
  • Respiratory: Exchanges gases between blood and air
  • Urinary: Filters blood, removes wastes

Digestive, Male/Female Reproductive, Common Elements

  • Digestive: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, anus. Digests absorbs and expels products
  • Male Reproductive: Testes, prostate gland, penis, scrotum. Produces sex cells and hormones
  • Female Reproductive: Ovaries, uterus, vagina, fallopian tubes. Produces sex cells and hormones
  • Common Elements: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N)

Plasma Membrane

  • Plasma Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer; hydrophobic tails; hydrophilic heads
  • Fluid Mosaic Model: The model describing the structure of the plasma membrane
  • Factors Influencing PM Fluidity: Temperature; cholesterol and type of fatty acid
  • Polar vs. Nonpolar: Polar molecules have uneven distribution of charge, asymmetric. Nonpolar molecules have an even distribution of charge, symmetric.
  • Hydrophilic: Water-loving (polar)
  • Hydrophobic: Water-fearing (nonpolar)
  • Amphipathic: Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic (e.g., phospholipids).

Macromolecules

  • Macromolecules: Large molecules/polymers composed of monomers.
  • Examples of Monomers and polymers include Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids.
  • Major Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Redox Reactions

  • Redox Reactions: Electrons are moved from one chemical structure to another. Structure that loses electrons is oxidized; structure that gains electrons is reduced.

Membrane Transport

  • Passive Transport: No energy required; substances move down the concentration gradient (high to low concentration). Examples include diffusion and osmosis
  • Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP); substances move against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration). -Examples: Pumps (Sodium-Potassium pump)

Osmosis

  • Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane
  • Isotonic Solutions: Similar solute concentration between cytosol and solution
  • Hypotonic Solutions: lower solute concentration than inside a cell resulting in water moving into the cell
  • Hypertonic Solutions: Higher solute concentration than inside a cell resulting in water moving out of the cell

Diffusion

  • Diffusion: Movement of ions/molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Symport vs Antiport Transport

  • Symport: Two different molecules are transported in the same direction
  • Antiport: Two different molecules are transported in opposite directions

Vesicular Transport

  • Exocytosis: Substance released from the inside by fusing with membrane
  • Endocytosis: Cell takes substance from the outside membrane

Receptor-Mediated Transport

  • Receptor-Mediated Transport: Import large amounts of molecules by binding to external receptors

Nervous System

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain, spinal cord.
  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves
  • Sensory Neurons: Receptors to CNS (Afferent)
  • Motor Neurons: CNS to effectors (Efferent)
  • Types of Effectors: Somatic (voluntary) and Autonomic (involuntary), cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands.

Neuron Structures

  • Detailed descriptions of neuron structures (e.g., epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium, etc.)
  • Functions of different components of neurons

Nerve Impulses (Action Potential)

  • Sequence of Events: Resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization
  • Channels: Voltage-gated channels, ligand-gated channels.
  • Conditions of Neuron at Rest: Concentration gradients for Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl-.
  • Significance of threshold MP: The threshold is the point where an action potential will be generated
  • Propagated AP at Synaptic Knob: How AP travels, voltage gated Ca2+ channels

Neurotransmitter Functions

  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers released from one neuron to another
  • Excitatory/Inhibitory: Effects on postsynaptic neurons

CNS-Cerebrospinal Fluid

  • Functions: Buoyancy, protection and waste transport

Hypothalamus

  • Control of hormones, body temperature, regulating autonomic functions (heart rate, blood pressure, digestion).

Cerebrum

  • Conscious thoughts, intellectual functions; sensory and motor input received from both halves (left and right sides of the brain)

Bone Tissue

  • Osteoblast: Build bones
  • Osteoclast: Break down bones
  • Osteoprogenitor Cells: bone stem cells

Anatomy of Long Bones

  • Proximal epiphysis, Metaphysis, Diaphysis, Distal epiphysis, and bone cells

Muscles

  • Skeletal muscle: voluntary movement, posture, breathing (striated).
  • Smooth muscle: involuntary movement (wall of hollow organs),
  • Cardiac muscle: involuntary movement, heartbeat (striated).

Muscle Contraction

  • Step-by-Step description of muscle contraction involving ATP, myosin and actin, Ca+ ions, sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Detailed explanation of the mechanisms involved

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