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Questions and Answers
Photoreceptors are primarily located in the skeletal muscles.
Photoreceptors are primarily located in the skeletal muscles.
False
The axon is responsible for transmitting electrical impulses away from the cell body.
The axon is responsible for transmitting electrical impulses away from the cell body.
True
Neurofibrils play a role in maintaining the structural support of neurons.
Neurofibrils play a role in maintaining the structural support of neurons.
True
Na+ concentration is higher inside the neuron than outside when the neuron is at rest.
Na+ concentration is higher inside the neuron than outside when the neuron is at rest.
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Chemically gated channels allow the movement of ions across the neuron membrane in response to voltage changes.
Chemically gated channels allow the movement of ions across the neuron membrane in response to voltage changes.
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Glycolysis occurs in the mitochondria and requires 2 glucose molecules as input.
Glycolysis occurs in the mitochondria and requires 2 glucose molecules as input.
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The Krebs Cycle outputs 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 after processing 2 AcetylcoA.
The Krebs Cycle outputs 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 after processing 2 AcetylcoA.
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Competitive inhibitors bind to the allosteric site of an enzyme, altering its activity.
Competitive inhibitors bind to the allosteric site of an enzyme, altering its activity.
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Anabolism is the process of breaking down large molecules into smaller ones.
Anabolism is the process of breaking down large molecules into smaller ones.
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Endergonic reactions absorb energy and are considered spontaneous.
Endergonic reactions absorb energy and are considered spontaneous.
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The cardiovascular system is responsible for delivering oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.
The cardiovascular system is responsible for delivering oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.
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The integumentary system includes bones that provide support and mineral storage.
The integumentary system includes bones that provide support and mineral storage.
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Photosynthesis is an example of an exergonic reaction.
Photosynthesis is an example of an exergonic reaction.
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Repolarization involves K+ efflux leading to depolarization of the neuron.
Repolarization involves K+ efflux leading to depolarization of the neuron.
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In the nucleus, DNA is made up of nucleotide monomers.
In the nucleus, DNA is made up of nucleotide monomers.
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During translation, the ribosome reads RNA in the 5' to 3' direction.
During translation, the ribosome reads RNA in the 5' to 3' direction.
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Osmosis refers to the movement of H2O across a cell membrane.
Osmosis refers to the movement of H2O across a cell membrane.
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Stop codons signal the beginning of RNA synthesis.
Stop codons signal the beginning of RNA synthesis.
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In a hypertonic solution, the concentration of solutes is lower than that of the cytosol.
In a hypertonic solution, the concentration of solutes is lower than that of the cytosol.
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Facilitated diffusion requires the assistance of proteins to move molecules across the cell membrane.
Facilitated diffusion requires the assistance of proteins to move molecules across the cell membrane.
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Capping is a process that adds a structure to the end of the mRNA.
Capping is a process that adds a structure to the end of the mRNA.
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Antiport transport mechanisms move two or more molecules in the same direction.
Antiport transport mechanisms move two or more molecules in the same direction.
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RNA polymerase is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix during transcription.
RNA polymerase is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix during transcription.
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During splicing, necessary parts of mRNA are retained while unnecessary parts are removed.
During splicing, necessary parts of mRNA are retained while unnecessary parts are removed.
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Endocytosis allows cells to take in substances by engulfing them with the cell membrane.
Endocytosis allows cells to take in substances by engulfing them with the cell membrane.
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Interphase occurs after mitosis and involves DNA replication.
Interphase occurs after mitosis and involves DNA replication.
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The phase of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart is called Metaphase.
The phase of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart is called Metaphase.
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A resting membrane potential has equal concentrations of Na+ and K+ ions inside and outside the cell.
A resting membrane potential has equal concentrations of Na+ and K+ ions inside and outside the cell.
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The epidermis is the deepest layer of the skin.
The epidermis is the deepest layer of the skin.
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In receptor-mediated transport, cells can import large quantities of molecules using specific receptors.
In receptor-mediated transport, cells can import large quantities of molecules using specific receptors.
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Cytokinesis results in the division of the cell cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
Cytokinesis results in the division of the cell cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
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The sodium-potassium pump actively transports Na+ into the cell while moving K+ out.
The sodium-potassium pump actively transports Na+ into the cell while moving K+ out.
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Keratinocytes in the stratum basale are primarily responsible for temperature regulation.
Keratinocytes in the stratum basale are primarily responsible for temperature regulation.
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The dermis contains blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair follicles.
The dermis contains blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair follicles.
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During G1 phase, cells primarily focus on synthesizing necessary enzymes.
During G1 phase, cells primarily focus on synthesizing necessary enzymes.
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Stratum corneum is the innermost layer of the epidermis.
Stratum corneum is the innermost layer of the epidermis.
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Melanocytes are responsible for producing keratin.
Melanocytes are responsible for producing keratin.
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Programmed cell death is known as apoptosis.
Programmed cell death is known as apoptosis.
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Eccrine glands are primarily found in hair follicles.
Eccrine glands are primarily found in hair follicles.
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The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
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The autonomic nervous system controls voluntary muscle movements.
The autonomic nervous system controls voluntary muscle movements.
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The endoneurium is the outermost layer of connective tissue surrounding a nerve.
The endoneurium is the outermost layer of connective tissue surrounding a nerve.
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Thermoreceptors are a type of sensory receptor that responds to temperature changes.
Thermoreceptors are a type of sensory receptor that responds to temperature changes.
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Sebaceous glands secrete a fluid called sweat to cool the body.
Sebaceous glands secrete a fluid called sweat to cool the body.
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Ion channels in neuron membranes allow specific ions to pass based on size and charge.
Ion channels in neuron membranes allow specific ions to pass based on size and charge.
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Study Notes
Cell Organelles
- Nucleus: Controls cell activities, regulates gene expression, synthesizes rRNA
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER): Synthesizes proteins
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies toxins, stores calcium ions
- Mitochondria: Produces ATP ("powerhouse"), modifies, sorts, and packages proteins/lipids for secretion
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins/lipids for secretion, digests macromolecules, and microorganisms
- Lysosomes: Digests macromolecules and microorganisms
- Centrosomes: Organizes microtubules, facilitates cell division
- Proteosomes: Degrades unneeded or damaged proteins
- Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support, facilitates movement
Ribosomes
- Ribosomes (free): Synthesize proteins used within the cytosol
- Ribosomes (free) transport materials and secrete substances, digest materials
Homeostasis
- Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment, even when external conditions change
- Positive Feedback: Variable moves in the same direction until the event occurs; amplifies the change (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth, fruit ripening)
- Negative Feedback: Variable moves back towards the set point; counteracts a change (e.g., body temperature regulation, blood glucose levels)
Atoms and Elements
- Atoms: Smallest particle of a substance that cannot be broken down chemically. Composed of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons
- Elements: Simple substances made of only one type of atom. Cannot be broken down into smaller parts or changed into another substance.
Organic and Inorganic Compounds
- Organic Compounds: Contain carbon; part of living organisms (e.g., sugars, cellulose, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids).
- Inorganic Compounds: Do not contain carbon; found in non-living matter (e.g., water, salts, acids, bases).
Metabolism and Cellular Respiration
- Metabolism: All chemical reactions in a living organism.
- Cellular Respiration: Metabolic pathway where cells break down glucose to produce ATP. Has four main stages: Glycolysis, Intermediate Stage, Citric Acid Cycle, ETC
Enzymes, Inhibitors, and Activators
- Enzymes: Catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions
- Enzymes are regulated by molecules
- Competitive Inhibitors: Resemble substrates and bind to the active site
- Non-competitive Inhibitors: Do not resemble substrates, bind to allosteric sites.
- Activators: Increase enzyme activity (e.g., other molecules, other enzymes)
Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions
- Exergonic Reactions: Release energy; spontaneous reactions (e.g., cellular respiration)
- Endergonic Reactions: Absorb energy; non-spontaneous reactions (e.g., photosynthesis)
Anabolism and Catabolism
- Anabolism: Small molecules are joined to make larger ones
- Catabolism: Large molecules are broken down into smaller ones
Body Systems
- Integumentary: Protection, sensation, body temperature regulation
- Skeletal: Support, movement, protection, mineral storage, blood cell production
- Muscular: Produces body movements
- Nervous: Controls muscles and some glands; coordinates digestive and reproductive functions
- Endocrine: Secretes hormones; maintains homeostasis
- Cardiovascular: Delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones
- Lymphatic: Transports and filters lymph
- Respiratory: Exchanges gases between blood and air
- Urinary: Filters blood, removes wastes
Digestive, Male/Female Reproductive, Common Elements
- Digestive: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, anus. Digests absorbs and expels products
- Male Reproductive: Testes, prostate gland, penis, scrotum. Produces sex cells and hormones
- Female Reproductive: Ovaries, uterus, vagina, fallopian tubes. Produces sex cells and hormones
- Common Elements: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N)
Plasma Membrane
- Plasma Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer; hydrophobic tails; hydrophilic heads
- Fluid Mosaic Model: The model describing the structure of the plasma membrane
- Factors Influencing PM Fluidity: Temperature; cholesterol and type of fatty acid
- Polar vs. Nonpolar: Polar molecules have uneven distribution of charge, asymmetric. Nonpolar molecules have an even distribution of charge, symmetric.
- Hydrophilic: Water-loving (polar)
- Hydrophobic: Water-fearing (nonpolar)
- Amphipathic: Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic (e.g., phospholipids).
Macromolecules
- Macromolecules: Large molecules/polymers composed of monomers.
- Examples of Monomers and polymers include Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids.
- Major Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Redox Reactions
- Redox Reactions: Electrons are moved from one chemical structure to another. Structure that loses electrons is oxidized; structure that gains electrons is reduced.
Membrane Transport
- Passive Transport: No energy required; substances move down the concentration gradient (high to low concentration). Examples include diffusion and osmosis
- Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP); substances move against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration). -Examples: Pumps (Sodium-Potassium pump)
Osmosis
- Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane
- Isotonic Solutions: Similar solute concentration between cytosol and solution
- Hypotonic Solutions: lower solute concentration than inside a cell resulting in water moving into the cell
- Hypertonic Solutions: Higher solute concentration than inside a cell resulting in water moving out of the cell
Diffusion
- Diffusion: Movement of ions/molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Symport vs Antiport Transport
- Symport: Two different molecules are transported in the same direction
- Antiport: Two different molecules are transported in opposite directions
Vesicular Transport
- Exocytosis: Substance released from the inside by fusing with membrane
- Endocytosis: Cell takes substance from the outside membrane
Receptor-Mediated Transport
- Receptor-Mediated Transport: Import large amounts of molecules by binding to external receptors
Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain, spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves
- Sensory Neurons: Receptors to CNS (Afferent)
- Motor Neurons: CNS to effectors (Efferent)
- Types of Effectors: Somatic (voluntary) and Autonomic (involuntary), cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands.
Neuron Structures
- Detailed descriptions of neuron structures (e.g., epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium, etc.)
- Functions of different components of neurons
Nerve Impulses (Action Potential)
- Sequence of Events: Resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization
- Channels: Voltage-gated channels, ligand-gated channels.
- Conditions of Neuron at Rest: Concentration gradients for Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl-.
- Significance of threshold MP: The threshold is the point where an action potential will be generated
- Propagated AP at Synaptic Knob: How AP travels, voltage gated Ca2+ channels
Neurotransmitter Functions
- Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers released from one neuron to another
- Excitatory/Inhibitory: Effects on postsynaptic neurons
CNS-Cerebrospinal Fluid
- Functions: Buoyancy, protection and waste transport
Hypothalamus
- Control of hormones, body temperature, regulating autonomic functions (heart rate, blood pressure, digestion).
Cerebrum
- Conscious thoughts, intellectual functions; sensory and motor input received from both halves (left and right sides of the brain)
Bone Tissue
- Osteoblast: Build bones
- Osteoclast: Break down bones
- Osteoprogenitor Cells: bone stem cells
Anatomy of Long Bones
- Proximal epiphysis, Metaphysis, Diaphysis, Distal epiphysis, and bone cells
Muscles
- Skeletal muscle: voluntary movement, posture, breathing (striated).
- Smooth muscle: involuntary movement (wall of hollow organs),
- Cardiac muscle: involuntary movement, heartbeat (striated).
Muscle Contraction
- Step-by-Step description of muscle contraction involving ATP, myosin and actin, Ca+ ions, sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Detailed explanation of the mechanisms involved
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Description
Test your knowledge on essential biology concepts including photoreceptors, neuron structure, metabolic pathways, and body systems. This quiz covers various topics crucial for understanding cellular processes and the human body.
