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What is the function of chloroplasts in plant cells?
What is the function of chloroplasts in plant cells?
The cell wall in plant cells is rigid and helps maintain cell shape.
The cell wall in plant cells is rigid and helps maintain cell shape.
True
What is the primary function of vacuoles in plant cells?
What is the primary function of vacuoles in plant cells?
To keep the cell turgid
A group of tissues working together to perform a specific function is called an ______.
A group of tissues working together to perform a specific function is called an ______.
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Match the following cell components with their functions:
Match the following cell components with their functions:
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What is measured with a spirometer?
What is measured with a spirometer?
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Yeast can only respire aerobically.
Yeast can only respire aerobically.
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What indicator can be used to investigate the effect of temperature on yeast cells?
What indicator can be used to investigate the effect of temperature on yeast cells?
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During exercise, _______ respiration occurs at a higher rate in tissues.
During exercise, _______ respiration occurs at a higher rate in tissues.
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Match the following respiratory actions with their phases:
Match the following respiratory actions with their phases:
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Which structure carries urine from the kidney to the bladder?
Which structure carries urine from the kidney to the bladder?
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Blood cells and large proteins can pass through Bowman’s capsule.
Blood cells and large proteins can pass through Bowman’s capsule.
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What is the primary function of the renal artery?
What is the primary function of the renal artery?
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The __________ stores urine before it is excreted.
The __________ stores urine before it is excreted.
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Match the following nephron processes with their descriptions:
Match the following nephron processes with their descriptions:
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Which type of white blood cell is responsible for digesting pathogens?
Which type of white blood cell is responsible for digesting pathogens?
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Which substance is NOT typically filtered into Bowman’s capsule?
Which substance is NOT typically filtered into Bowman’s capsule?
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The renal vein is responsible for reabsorbing water and functional molecules.
The renal vein is responsible for reabsorbing water and functional molecules.
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White blood cells are primarily responsible for oxygen transport in the body.
White blood cells are primarily responsible for oxygen transport in the body.
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What is the function of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
What is the function of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
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What is the role of the collecting duct in the nephron?
What is the role of the collecting duct in the nephron?
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The skin has a thick outer layer of ________ cells that acts as a mechanical barrier.
The skin has a thick outer layer of ________ cells that acts as a mechanical barrier.
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Match the types of white blood cells with their functions:
Match the types of white blood cells with their functions:
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Which of the following is NOT a mechanical barrier?
Which of the following is NOT a mechanical barrier?
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Vaccination enhances the production of antibodies in response to specific pathogens.
Vaccination enhances the production of antibodies in response to specific pathogens.
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Which chamber of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body?
Which chamber of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body?
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The left ventricle has thinner walls than the right ventricle.
The left ventricle has thinner walls than the right ventricle.
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What role do lymphocytes play in the immune response?
What role do lymphocytes play in the immune response?
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What prevents blood from flowing backwards into the heart?
What prevents blood from flowing backwards into the heart?
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The _____ artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
The _____ artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
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Match the following blood vessel functions to their descriptions:
Match the following blood vessel functions to their descriptions:
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What maintains high pressure in the arteries?
What maintains high pressure in the arteries?
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Blood is at high pressure when it moves through the capillaries.
Blood is at high pressure when it moves through the capillaries.
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What is the main function of the right ventricle?
What is the main function of the right ventricle?
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What causes a plant cell to become flaccid?
What causes a plant cell to become flaccid?
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Diffusion requires energy to occur.
Diffusion requires energy to occur.
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What is the net movement of water molecules during osmosis?
What is the net movement of water molecules during osmosis?
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The process that allows small molecules like glucose and water to pass through the dialysis tubing is called _____ and _____
The process that allows small molecules like glucose and water to pass through the dialysis tubing is called _____ and _____
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Match the factors influencing diffusion with their descriptions:
Match the factors influencing diffusion with their descriptions:
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Which molecules are prevented from passing through dialysis tubing?
Which molecules are prevented from passing through dialysis tubing?
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What role does water play in organisms concerning diffusion?
What role does water play in organisms concerning diffusion?
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Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient.
Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient.
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Study Notes
CAIE IGCSE Biology Summary Notes
- This document is a summary of the CAIE IGCSE Biology theory syllabus, covering material updated for the 2023-2025 and 2026-2028 syllabuses.
1. Characteristics and Classification of Living Organisms
- Living organisms share characteristics summarised by the acronym MRS GREN (Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrition).
- Dichotomous keys are used to classify organisms based on observable features.
- The Five Kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
- Classifying organisms helps to show evolutionary relationships.
- DNA base sequence analysis is used to determine evolutionary relatedness.
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms
- Movement: Organisms move or parts of their organism change position.
- Respiration: Chemical reactions break down molecules for energy release.
- Sensitivity: Organisms detect and react to changes in their surroundings.
- Growth: Permanent increase in size and dry mass.
- Reproduction: Organisms make more of the same kind.
- Excretion: Removal of waste products and excess materials.
- Nutrition: Obtaining raw materials for energy and growth
1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification System
- Organisms are grouped based on shared characteristics.
- Species are groups of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
- Classification sequence is Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species (King Philip Came Over For Good Soup).
- Binomial Nomenclature is a two-part naming system (Genus species) for organisms. The Genus is capitalized, and species is lowercase.
1.3. Features of Organisms
- Five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.
- Kingdoms are divided into organisms with similar characteristics.
- Key examples of the characteristics of these kingdoms are provided.
1.4. Vertebrates
- Mammals (fur, mammary glands)
- Fish (scales, gills)
- Reptiles (scales, lay eggs)
- Birds (feathers, lays eggs)
- Amphibians (smooth skin, lay eggs).
1.5. Arthropods
- Invertebrates: organisms without a backbone
- All arthropods have exoskeletons, jointed legs, and segmented bodies.
- Examples of arthropod groups: Insects, Arachnids, Crustaceans, and Myriapods.
1.6. Classification of Plants
- Ferns: Do not produce flowers or seeds, reproduce by spores.
- Flowering Plants: Produce flowers and seeds, reproduce via flowers.
1.7. Viruses
- Not considered living things.
- Contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) inside protein coat.
- Reproduce inside host cells using host cell's mechanisms.
2. Organisation of the Organism
2.1. Cell Structure
- All organisms are made of cells.
- Key cell organelles include cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes.
- Eukaryotic cells contain a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
- Prokaryotic cells do not contain a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
3. Movement In and Out of Cells
3.1. Diffusion
- Net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration.
- Influenced by concentration gradient, temperature, surface area to volume ratio, and distance.
3.2. Osmosis
- Net movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential across a partially permeable membrane.
3.3. Active Transport
- Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient, requiring energy (from respiration).
- Achieved through carrier proteins embedded in the cell membrane.
4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
- Carbohydrates (CHO): Used for energy and building materials.
- Fats/Oils (CHO): Energy storage and insulation
- Proteins (CHONS): Structural components, hormones, enzymes.
4.2. Food Tests
- Tests for presence of following; Starch, Reducing Sugars, Fats, Proteins.
- Specific test procedures & colour changes indicative of each substance's presence should be known.
4.3. Structure of DNA
- DNA Structure: Double helix with two strands held together by complementary base pairing (Adenine-Thymine, Cytosine-Guanine).
5. Enzymes
- Catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
- Importance of Temperature & pH in enzyme activity.
- Lock & Key Model – relationship between enzyme and substrate.
6. Plant Nutrition
6.1. Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
- The process whereby plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
###6.2. Investigation of Chlorophyll
- Experimental procedures (using variegated leaves) to demonstrate the role of light in photosynthesis.
6.3. Investigation of Light
- Experimental procedures (using variegated leaves) to demonstrate the role of light in photosynthesis.
6.4. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
- Experimental procedures to investigate the role of carbon dioxide concentration in affecting photosynthesis rate.
6.5. Limiting Factors
- Factors (light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature) that can constrain photosynthesis.
6.6. Leaf Structure
- Adaptations (cuticle, stomata, vascular bundles) that optimize photosynthesis and water conservation.
7. Human Nutrition
7. 1. Diet
- Balanced Diet: A diet containing carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water in suitable proportions for good health.
7.2. Nutrition
- Importance of specific nutrients (glucose, proteins, fats, vitamins).
- Different nutrients' roles and functions should be known.
7.3. Deficiencies
- Deficiency diseases related to Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Ca, Fe.
- Specific symptoms associated with each deficiency should be understood.
7.4. Digestive System
- Key organs (mouth, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, large intestine, rectum, anus). Also, the role of associated organs (liver, pancreas)
- Mechanical and Chemical Digestion & Absorption and Assimilation - the steps in the digestive process - The main roles of enzymes (Amylase, Protease, Lipase) and bile.
7.5. Teeth
- Different types of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars, molars).
- Structure and function of each tooth type in chewing should be known.
8. Transport in Plants
8.1. Xylem and Phloem
- Xylem: Transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves.
- Phloem: Transports sucrose and amino acids from source to sink.
- Adaptations of xylem and phloem cells for their function.
8.2. Water Uptake
- Root hair cells take up water from the soil by osmosis.
- Water moves from roots to the leaves through the xylem.
8.3. Transpiration
- Evaporation of water from leaves through stomata.
- Factors that affect transpiration rate (e.g., temperature, humidity, wind, light).
9. Transport in Animals
9.1. Circulatory Systems
- Components of the circulatory system (heart, blood vessels, blood).
- Single vs. double circulatory systems. Understanding the differences in the structures of these systems, and their adaptations, is essential.
9.2. Heart
- Structure of the mammalian heart (atria, ventricles, valves, coronary arteries).
9.3. Functioning of the Heart
- Pathway of blood through the heart in both systemic and pulmonary circuits.
9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate
- Effects of exercise on the heart rate and ECG.
9.5. Coronary Heart Disease
- Causes and prevention of coronary heart disease.
9.6. Blood Vessels
- Structure and function of arteries, veins, and capillaries.
9.7. Blood
- Components of blood (plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets).
- Functions of each blood component in circulatory system
10. Diseases and Immunity
10.1. Pathogens
- Organisms that cause disease (types, modes of transmission).
- Examples of Diseases caused by pathogens
10.2. Body Defences
- Barriers to infection: skin, mucus, cilia.
- Mechanisms of action of phagocytes and lymphocytes (e.g., via anti-bodies), including the role of specific antibodies.
- Vaccination: how vaccination builds immunity -Passive Immunity: short-term immunity acquired via antibodies from another individual -Active Immunity: long-term immunity acquired via the body developing antibodies from exposure to a pathogen Different types of pathogens, and ways they can be transmitted
11. Gas Exchange in Humans
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces
- Structure and function of gas exchange surfaces (e.g., alveoli).
- Properties of efficient gas exchange surfaces, (thin surface/large surface area/good ventilation/good blood supply)
11.2. Structure of the Lungs
- Structure of the respiratory system (diaphragm, intercostal muscles, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli).
11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing
- Factors influencing breathing rate and depth during exercise
11.4. Breathing
- Mechanisms of breathing (inspiration and expiration).
- Muscle action - diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
12. Respiration
12.1. Respiration
- Aerobic Respiration: complete breakdown of respiratory substances (glucose) using oxygen to produce energy (ATP).
- Cellular Respiration & its many uses for the body, for example, muscle contraction, protein synthesis, and maintenance of the body temperature
- Anaerobic Respiration: incomplete breakdown of respiratory substances (glucose) without oxygen to produce energy (ATP) as a less efficient process
12.2. Aerobic Respiration
- Details of the equation and products
12.3. Anaerobic Respiration
- Details of the equation and products, and conditions under which it occurs (e.g., intense exercise)
13. Excretion in Humans
13.1. Excretion
- Removal of waste products and excess materials from the body.
- The organs involved in the process of excretion
- The importance of excretory products (e.g., urea, excess water and salts).
13.2. Function of Liver
- Role of liver in deamination of amino acids, breakdown of urea formation, filtering toxins, and role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
- Bile's role in digestion.
13.3. Function of Kidney
- Kidney structure (cortex, medulla, pelvis)
- Process of urine formation (filtration, reabsorption, secretion).
- Role of kidney in regulating water balance & blood composition
14. Coordination and Response
14.1. Mammalian Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord)
- Peripheral Nervous System - (nerves and neurons)
- Body functions regulation
- Types of Neurones
- Sensory: transmit messages from receptors to central nervous system
- Relay: connect sensory and motor neurons in the central nervous system
- Motor: transmit messages from central nervous system to effectors
- Electrical impulses
14.2. Types of Neurones
- Different types of neurons and their functions within the nervous system (structure, function)
14.3. Simple Reflex Arc
- Relay neurons: Connect sensory to motor neurons in the central nervous system.
- How it represents a reflex action
- The different components of the reflex arc and their function
14.4. Synapse
- Structure/Function of Synapses
- Neurotransmitters: transmit signals across the synapse
14.5. Sense Organs
- Groups of receptors (cells/organs) detecting specific types of stimuli (e.g., light, sound, temperature).
14.6. Pupil Reflex
- Involuntary responses to light intensity within the eye
14.7. Accommodation
- Adjusting the lens to focus on near and distant objects.
14.8. Rods and Cones
- Types of photoreceptor cells in the retina, and their roles related to visual acuity and night vision.
14.9. Hormones
- Mechanism of hormonal action, roles of hormones and how they are produced/used (Adrenaline, Insulin, testosterone, estrogen, glucagon)
- Key chemical messages produced and used by various endocrine glands
14.10. Nervous and Hormonal Control
- Comparison of nervous and hormonal control systems in terms of speed of action, transmission route and area of response.
14.11. Homeostasis
- Dynamic equilibrium and the concept of regulation.
- Negative Feedback Mechanisms
14.12. Homeostasis: Blood Glucose Control
- Regulation of blood glucose concentration
- The roles of insulin and glucagon in maintaining homeostasis, and how they work in a feedback loop to maintain the glucose level.
14.13. Homeostasis: Temperature Regulation
- Mechanisms that help maintain body temperature.
14.14. Tropic Responses
- Roles of Plant Hormones (Auxins) in controlling plant responses, such as phototropism and gravitropism.
16. Reproduction
16.1. Asexual Reproduction
- Types and processes of asexual reproduction (e.g. binary fission, budding).
- Advantages/Disadvantages
16.2. Sexual Reproduction
- Process and advantages/disadvantages of sexual reproduction.
- Fertilisation stages
- Haploid/Diploid concepts
16.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
- Flower structure - Male and female parts
- Pollination (Insect and Wind)
16.4. Pollination
- Agents of pollination - how each method works
16.5. Germination
- Role of water, oxygen, and temperature in germination.
16.6. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
- Structure of the Male and Female reproductive systems.
- Gamete production (Sperm/Ovum) and their adaptations – fertilisation in humans and development, and the process of the menstrual cycle
17. Inheritance, Genes and Proteins
17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins
- The structure and role of DNA and how it codes for proteins
- Coding for DNA segments (gene → protein link.)
17.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis
- Transcription and translation in terms of the sequence of bases for a gene and how proteins are made
17.3. Cell Division: Mitosis
- Stages and purpose of mitosis in asexual reproduction and growth.
- Chromosome number maintenance
17.4. Cell Division: Meiosis
- Purpose and stages of meiosis in sexual reproduction (gamete formation)
- Reduction of chromosome number
17.5. Monohybrid Inheritance
- Understanding the terms related to monohybrid inheritance (e.g., genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive alleles).
18. Variation and Selection
18.1. Variation
- Causes and types of variation (continuous and discontinuous variation)
18.2. Adaptive Features
- Factors affecting population size
- Adaptive features related to survival, such as adaptations to extreme temperatures/water availability and other environmental conditions.
18.3. Selection
- Natural Selection and how it operates.
- Examples of natural selection.
- Artificial Selection
19. Organisms and their Environment
19.1. Energy Flow
- Food Chains & Pyramids and Food Webs
- Efficiency of energy transfer within food chains and webs.
- Energy is lost at each stage/level of a food chain through respiration.
19.2. Nutrient Cycles
- Summary of Carbon and Nitrogen cycles, and their importance
19.3. Population
- Population factors (growth, size, carrying capacity)
- Factors influencing population size: food supply, predation, disease.
19.4. Sigmoid Curve of Population Growth
- The concept of population growth curves and factors affecting growth rate.
20. Human Influences on Ecosystems
20.1. Food Supply
- Factors (mechanisation, fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides, and monoculture) that influence food production.
20.2. Habitat Destruction
- Impacts of human activities on biodiversity, and reasons for habitat loss.
20.3. Pollution
- Factors that affect the quantity of pollution
- Problems associated with over-reliance on non-renewable energy sources or over-use of products that have a negative environmental impact, e.g., pesticides, and waste disposal etc.
20.4. Conservation
- Importance of sustainable resource use
- Conservation strategies (e.g. protected areas, quotas, replanting.)
21. Biotechnology and Genetic Modification
21.1. Introduction
- Role of microorganisms in biotechnology
- Genetic Modification
21.2. Biotechnology
- Methods of using microorganisms in Biotechnology (e.g., producing biofuels, and food items.)
21.3. Fermenters
- Large-scale production vessels used in biotechnology
21.4. Genetic Modification
- Methods and examples of genetic modification.
- Genetic Engineering - changing the genetic material of an organism
21.5. Genetically Modified Crops
- Arguments for and against the use of genetically modified crops in modern food production.
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This quiz covers crucial concepts in biology related to the functions and structures of plant and animal cells, including chloroplasts, vacuoles, and renal processes. Test your knowledge on how different cell components work together in living organisms.
