Biology Chapter Overview

Biology

• Cells are the basic units of life
• Cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and genetic material (DNA).
• Different cell types have specific structures and functions.
• Animal cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts, whereas plant cells have both.
• Cells combine to form tissues, tissues form organs, and organs work together to form organ systems.
• Organ systems function together to maintain homeostasis.
• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are important biological molecules.
• Each has specific roles (e.g., energy storage, structural components, enzymes).
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions.
• Enzyme function depends on their specific 3D shape and active site.
• Factors like temperature and pH affect enzyme activity significantly.
• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight to make glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
• Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts and involves absorption of light energy.
• Photosynthesis equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
• Respiration is the process of releasing energy from glucose.
• Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide and water; anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen.
• Heredity occurs through DNA, which carries the genetic instructions for life.
• DNA is a double helix structure.
• Genes code for proteins.
• Mitosis is cell division that results in identical daughter cells; meiosis is cell division that results in gametes (sex cells) with half the number of chromosomes.
• Organisms evolve over time through natural selection.
• Natural selection involves those with advantageous traits being more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their beneficial characteristics.

Chemistry

• Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
• The periodic table organizes elements based on their atomic structure and properties.
• Atoms have a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, and electrons orbit the nucleus.
• Different atoms have different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Elements bond to form molecules and compounds.
• Types of bonds include ionic (transfer of electrons), covalent (sharing of electrons), and metallic bonds.
• Chemical reactions involve the breaking and forming of bonds between atoms.
• Chemical reactions involve reactants transforming into products.
• A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction.
• Balancing chemical equations is important, as it shows atom conservation.
• The pH scale measures acidity and basicity.
• Acids have a pH less than 7, bases have a pH greater than 7, and neutral solutions have a pH of 7.
• Acid-base reactions involve the transfer of protons, and neutralization reactions produce salts and water.
• Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas.
• The particles of matter in each state behave differently; e.g., solids have fixed shapes, and gases fill the container that they are in.
• Trends in the periodic table (e.g., reactivity, electron arrangement) allow for prediction of the properties of elements.

Physics

• Forces cause changes in motion.
• Newton's laws of motion describe relationships between forces, mass, and acceleration.
• Types of forces include gravitational force, electrostatic force, magnetic force, and frictional force.
• Energy exists in various forms (kinetic, potential, thermal, light).
• Energy can be transferred and transformed from one form to another.
• Waves transfer energy from one place to another without transferring matter.
• Examples include sound waves, light waves, and water waves.
• Electric current flows when there is a potential difference.
• Electrical circuits involve energy transformation and current flow.
• Components of a circuit include a power supply, conducting wires, bulbs, and resistors.
• Energy transfers and changes occur when forces act on objects.
• Examples include objects moving due to forces acting on them, and energy transformations during movement.
• Radioactive substances emit radiation as they decay.
• Isotopes of the same element have different numbers of neutrons.
• Different types of radiation (alpha, beta, and gamma) have varying penetrating power.
• Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
• Heat transfer occurs due to temperature differences.
• Forms of heat transfer include conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Light travels in straight lines and can be reflected and refracted.
• The electromagnetic spectrum includes a range of wavelengths including visible light.
• Mirrors and lenses use light reflection and refraction.