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Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT a major family of small organic molecules used as building blocks for cellular macromolecules?
Which of the following is NOT a major family of small organic molecules used as building blocks for cellular macromolecules?
What is the primary difference between condensation reactions and hydrolysis reactions?
What is the primary difference between condensation reactions and hydrolysis reactions?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of functional groups?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of functional groups?
Which of the following statements about polymers is TRUE?
Which of the following statements about polymers is TRUE?
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What is the role of ATP in condensation reactions?
What is the role of ATP in condensation reactions?
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Which of the following macromolecules is NOT composed of monomers?
Which of the following macromolecules is NOT composed of monomers?
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Which of the following is TRUE about the chemical components of cells?
Which of the following is TRUE about the chemical components of cells?
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What is the molecular formula for maltose, a disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules?
What is the molecular formula for maltose, a disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules?
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Which of the following is a primary storage polysaccharide in plants?
Which of the following is a primary storage polysaccharide in plants?
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What type of glucose units are the energy storage polysaccharides composed of?
What type of glucose units are the energy storage polysaccharides composed of?
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Which characteristic differentiates amylose from amylopectin?
Which characteristic differentiates amylose from amylopectin?
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Which of the following polysaccharides is primarily a structural component in the dietary fiber of plants?
Which of the following polysaccharides is primarily a structural component in the dietary fiber of plants?
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What is a benefit of resistant starch?
What is a benefit of resistant starch?
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How are starches typically stored in plant cells?
How are starches typically stored in plant cells?
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What is the main difference in the rate of digestion between amylose and amylopectin?
What is the main difference in the rate of digestion between amylose and amylopectin?
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What distinguishes enantiomers in chemistry?
What distinguishes enantiomers in chemistry?
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What role does the S-isomer of ibuprofen play?
What role does the S-isomer of ibuprofen play?
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Which of the following is a property of α-D-glucose polymers?
Which of the following is a property of α-D-glucose polymers?
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What is the significance of hydroxyl groups in glucose isomers?
What is the significance of hydroxyl groups in glucose isomers?
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What defines a disaccharide?
What defines a disaccharide?
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Which two fatty acids are considered essential for humans?
Which two fatty acids are considered essential for humans?
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What is the primary effect of hydrogenation on fatty acids?
What is the primary effect of hydrogenation on fatty acids?
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Which sugar is recognized as a potential low-calorie sweetener but is costly to produce?
Which sugar is recognized as a potential low-calorie sweetener but is costly to produce?
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What health issue is associated with trans fatty acids?
What health issue is associated with trans fatty acids?
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What is the function of an isomerase enzyme?
What is the function of an isomerase enzyme?
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What are triglycerides composed of?
What are triglycerides composed of?
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Which type of chain formation is optimal for high tensile strength in fibers?
Which type of chain formation is optimal for high tensile strength in fibers?
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What type of triglycerides are typically solid or semi-solid at room temperature?
What type of triglycerides are typically solid or semi-solid at room temperature?
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What may be a health risk of high triglyceride levels in the blood?
What may be a health risk of high triglyceride levels in the blood?
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How can triglyceride levels be reduced?
How can triglyceride levels be reduced?
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Why are partially hydrogenated oils used in food products?
Why are partially hydrogenated oils used in food products?
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What is the most common steroid found in animal cells?
What is the most common steroid found in animal cells?
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Which type of amino acid is NOT used to construct proteins?
Which type of amino acid is NOT used to construct proteins?
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What affects the functional differences between two proteins that have the same amino acid sequence?
What affects the functional differences between two proteins that have the same amino acid sequence?
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Which of the following statements about amino acids is true?
Which of the following statements about amino acids is true?
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What characteristic of amino acids determines their specific properties?
What characteristic of amino acids determines their specific properties?
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Which of the following is true regarding the ionization of amino acids at neutral pH (around pH 7)?
Which of the following is true regarding the ionization of amino acids at neutral pH (around pH 7)?
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How do amino acids with uncharged polar R groups differ from those with nonpolar R groups?
How do amino acids with uncharged polar R groups differ from those with nonpolar R groups?
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What role does cholesterol play in cell membranes?
What role does cholesterol play in cell membranes?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of monosaccharides?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of monosaccharides?
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What is the general formula for monosaccharides?
What is the general formula for monosaccharides?
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What is the name given to the spontaneous chemical reaction between the carbonyl group of a monosaccharide and the amino group of an amino acid?
What is the name given to the spontaneous chemical reaction between the carbonyl group of a monosaccharide and the amino group of an amino acid?
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Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of advanced glycation end products (AGEs)?
Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of advanced glycation end products (AGEs)?
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What type of sugar is glucose?
What type of sugar is glucose?
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What is the most common disaccharide?
What is the most common disaccharide?
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Which of the following is NOT a type of polysaccharide?
Which of the following is NOT a type of polysaccharide?
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What is the significance of ring formation in sugars?
What is the significance of ring formation in sugars?
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Flashcards
Chemical Bonds
Chemical Bonds
Forces that hold atoms together in molecules.
Small Molecules
Small Molecules
Simple compounds that are fundamental to cell structure and function.
Functional Groups
Functional Groups
Specific groups of atoms that influence molecular behavior.
Condensation Reactions
Condensation Reactions
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Hydrolysis Reactions
Hydrolysis Reactions
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Macromolecules
Macromolecules
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Monomers
Monomers
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Organic Molecules in Cells
Organic Molecules in Cells
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Sugars
Sugars
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Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides
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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
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Reducing Sugars
Reducing Sugars
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Glycation
Glycation
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Isomers
Isomers
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Enantiomers
Enantiomers
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L-glucose
L-glucose
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D-glucose
D-glucose
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S-isomer of ibuprofen
S-isomer of ibuprofen
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R-isomer of ibuprofen
R-isomer of ibuprofen
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α-D-glucose
α-D-glucose
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Essential Fatty Acids
Essential Fatty Acids
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Alpha-linolenic acid
Alpha-linolenic acid
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Linoleic acid
Linoleic acid
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Trans-fats
Trans-fats
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Triglycerides
Triglycerides
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High triglyceride levels
High triglyceride levels
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Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation
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Reducing triglycerides
Reducing triglycerides
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Maltose
Maltose
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Lactose
Lactose
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Sucrose
Sucrose
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Starch
Starch
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Glycogen
Glycogen
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Amylose
Amylose
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Amylopectin
Amylopectin
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Resistant Starch
Resistant Starch
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Steroids
Steroids
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Cholesterol
Cholesterol
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Amino Acids
Amino Acids
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R-groups
R-groups
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L- and D-amino acids
L- and D-amino acids
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Ionized form at pH 7
Ionized form at pH 7
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Families of Amino Acids
Families of Amino Acids
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L-tryptophan
L-tryptophan
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Study Notes
Chemical Components of Cells
- Cells are composed of carbon-based (organic) molecules.
- Key chemical components include chemical bonds, small molecules, and macromolecules.
- Review pages 44-54 on chemical bonds.
Small Molecules in Cells
- Functional groups influence molecular behavior.
- Know the names, structures, and basic properties of hydroxyl, methyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and sulfhydryl groups.
- These groups' behavior influences how molecules behave.
- Molecular properties (e.g., polarity, acidity/basicity) are influenced by functional groups.
- Information on functional groups is located on page 70-71 of the text.
Macromolecules in Cells
- Nearly all cellular molecules are carbon-based.
- This allows for a large variety of sizes and types.
- Four major families of small organic molecules are: sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides.
- These molecules serve as building blocks for larger macromolecules
A Cell is Formed from Carbon Compounds
- These carbon-based organic molecules are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- The chemical structure of these molecules determines their function.
Cells Contain Four Major Families of Small Organic Molecules
- Small organic molecules (sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides) make up macromolecules of the cell.
- These molecules comprise a large proportion of a cell's mass.
Condensation Reactions
- Polymers are synthesized via condensation reactions, removing water molecules to join monomers.
- These reactions are energetically unfavorable and require energy (often ATP) and enzymes.
- Macromolecules exhibit directionality, meaning the ends of the polymer have different properties.
Hydrolysis Reactions
- To break down polymers, cells use hydrolysis.
- These reactions are energetically favorable and usually require enzymes to speed up the process.
- These reactions consume water.
KNOW!
- Students should recognize the molecular structure of all basic molecules discussed in the chapter (monomers and macromolecules).
- Recognize examples of amino acid structures.
Sugars are Energy Sources and Subunits of Polysaccharides
- Sugars serve as energy sources and building blocks for polysaccharides.
Sugars: Carbohydrates
- Sugars are commonly classified as monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides (two monosaccharides), or polysaccharides (many monosaccharides).
- Monosaccharides have general formula $C_nH_{2n}O_n$, where n = 3, 4, 5, or 6.
- Glucose, fructose, and galactose are examples of important monosaccharides.
- Sucrose, lactose, and maltose are common disaccharides.
- Starches, glycogen, and fibers are examples of polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
- Monosaccharides can contain an aldehyde group (aldoses) or a ketone group (ketoses).
- Monosaccharides are classified as trioses, pentoses, or hexoses based on the number of carbon atoms.
FYI: Monosaccharides are Reducing Sugars
- Monosaccharides can reduce other molecules and be oxidized themselves.
- Monosaccharides react with amino acids, creating advanced glycation end-products (AGEs).
- AGEs are implicated in aging and various diseases, including diabetes, and are believed to cause tissue damage.
Ring Formation
- In aqueous solutions, sugars (with an aldehyde or ketone group) can react with a hydroxyl group to form a ring structure.
Isomers and Enantiomers
- Isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula but different atom arrangements.
- Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other.
- L-glucose and D-glucose are enantiomers of glucose.
- Important for the functionality of drugs.
Importance of Isomers and Enantiomers
- Different enantiomers of the same molecule can have distinct effects on the body.
- Some drugs are available only in one of their isomeric forms, and the other form may produce unintended side effects.
α and β Links
- The position of a hydroxyl group on the carbon that carries the aldehyde or ketone group in monosaccharides can determine if they are in an α or β configuration.
- α-D-glucose polymers form spiral structures and are easily hydrolyzed.
- β-D-glucose polymers form straight chains, essential for structural strength, and are resistant to hydrolysis.
Di- and Polysaccharides
- Two monosaccharides combine via a glycosidic bond to form a disaccharide (condensation).
- Common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose.
- Multiple monosaccharides combine to form polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
- Starch and glycogen are used for energy storage, while cellulose provides structural support in plants.
Carbohydrates are a source of energy
- Glucose is a primary energy source for cells.
- Cellular respiration oxidizes glucose to produce ATP.
- Energy storage polysaccharides (starch, glycogen) are composed of α-D-glucose units.
Storage Polysaccharides (Starch)
- Starch is a glucose storage form in plants.
- It's present as starch grains in amyloplats, both unbranched amylose and branched amylopectin.
- Amylose is roughly 10-30% of most starches.
- Amylopectin is roughly 70-90% of most starches.
FYI: Amylose and Amylopectin Glycemic Index
- Different starch types have different glycemic indices, influencing blood sugar levels.
- Amylose absorbs less water, digests slower.
- Amylopectin absorbs more water, digests faster.
FYI: Resistant Starch
- Starches that are not broken down by enzymes in the human small intestine are resistant starch.
- Resistant starch benefits gut health because it passes through the small intestine, reaching the colon where it can feed beneficial bacteria.
Storage Polysaccharides (Glycogen)
- Glycogen is a highly branched glucose storage form in animals.
- Glycogen stores are primarily located in liver and muscle tissue.
Structural Polysaccharides (Cellulose)
- Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls.
- It's composed of β-D-glucose units.
- It's indigestible for humans but important dietary fiber.
- Termites and ruminants have digestive systems that can break down cellulose.
Structural Polysaccharides (Sugar Derivatives)
- The hydroxyl groups on monosaccharides can be modified to make different molecules, such as chitin.
- Chitin strengthens the exoskeletons of insects and cell walls of fungi.
Dietary Fiber
- Two types of structural polysaccharide fibers are insoluble (e.g., cellulose) and soluble (e.g., pectin).
- Insoluble fiber increases fecal bulk; promotes bowel regularity.
- Soluble fiber can absorb water and form gels, which promotes digestive health.
Modified Carbohydrates (Glycoproteins and Glycolipids)
- Glycoproteins and glycolipids are carbohydrates covalently attached to membrane proteins or lipids.
- They are found on the outer cell surface, allowing cells to adhere, protect, and recognize each other.
Fatty Acid Chains are Components of Cell Membranes
- Fatty acids are the building blocks of several types of lipids used in cell membranes.
- A fatty acid has a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic head.
Categories of Lipids
- Several classes of lipids include storage lipids (neutral lipids), membrane lipids (polar lipids), and sterols.
- Examples include triglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol, and plant sterols.
Fatty Acids
- Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end.
- The carboxyl group is polar and charged.
- The hydrocarbon chain is nonpolar.
- Saturated or unsaturated are terms that describe their chemical structure.
Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
- Saturated fatty acids have only single bonds between carbon atoms, tend to be solid at room temperature.
- Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond between carbon atoms, tend to be liquid at room temperature.
- The presence of double bonds creates kinks in the hydrocarbon chain.
Essential Fatty Acids
- Essential fatty acids must be obtained from the diet because the human body cannot synthesize them.
- Examples include alpha-linolenic acid (ω-3) and linoleic acid (ω-6).
- These fatty acids have multiple functions in cells, including regulating inflammation.
Triglycerides or Triacylglycerols
- Triglycerides are composed of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
- They serve as long-term energy storage in cells.
Triacylglycerol
- Triglycerides composed primarily of saturated fatty acids are predominantly solid at room temperature.
- Foods rich in saturated fats can elevate blood triglyceride levels, posing risks for metabolic syndrome, fatty liver disease, and pancreatitis.
Triglycerides are a mixture of fatty acids with different saturation levels
- A variety of fatty acids are present in triglycerides, ranging from saturated (solid at room temperature), to monounsaturated (liquid at room temperature) to polyunsaturated (liquid at room temperature).
- Examples include animal fats (saturated), olive oil (monounsaturated), and corn oil (polyunsaturated).
Phospholipids
- Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules composed of a polar head group (hydrophilic) and two nonpolar fatty acid tails (hydrophobic).
- In solution, phospholipids self-organize into membranes, with their hydrophilic heads facing the surrounding aqueous environments.
Glycolipids
- Glycolipids are lipids with carbohydrate groups attached.
- They are found on cell membranes, aiding in cell recognition and interactions.
Lipid Aggregates
- Triglycerides aggregate into large droplets.
- Phospholipids and glycolipids form bilayers, the foundation of cell membranes.
Steroids
- Steroids are derivatives of a four-ringed hydrocarbon skeleton.
- Cholesterol is a major steroid in animals and is a component of cell membranes, influencing fluidity, and precursor for hormones.
- Other steroids include sex hormones (e.g., testosterone) and corticosteroids.
Amino Acids
- Amino acids are the monomers for proteins.
- Twenty common amino acids are used for protein synthesis.
- Each amino acid has a central carbon atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a distinctive R-group.
Amino Acids Are the Subunits of Proteins
- The monomers of proteins are amino acids.
- Different amino acids (e.g., acidic, basic, polar, nonpolar) influence protein structure and function.
- The specific sequence and types of amino acids ultimately determine the protein's function and shape.
Amino Acids
- Every amino acid has the same basic structural components (central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and an R-group).
- The R-group (or side chain) distinguishes the various amino acids.
Families of Amino Acids (1 of 3)
- Amino acids can be categorized into groups based on their side chains' chemical properties (e.g., acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar).
Families of Amino Acids (2 of 3)
- The side chains that are uncharged polar contain oxygen or nitrogen.
Families of Amino Acids (3 of 3)
- Nonpolar R-groups have side chains that lack oxygen and nitrogen and tend to be hydrophobic.
- The side chains' differences in their electronegativity are critical to their subsequent roles in protein structure and function.
Supplementing Your Diet with Amino Acids
- Amino acids, such as L-tryptophan, can be consumed as supplements.
- While some amino acids might have beneficial effects (e.g. L-tryptophan aiding sleep), more comprehensive research is needed to fully understand their use.
Peptide Bond
- Amino acids are connected by covalent peptide bonds.
- The directionality of the chain (N-terminus and C-terminus) is crucial for protein function.
Proteins and Polypeptides
- Polypeptides are chains of amino acids linked via peptide bonds.
- Proteins are functional, three-dimensional molecules formed when a polypeptide achieves a stable, unique shape.
How many amino acids are in this peptide?
- Count the number of amino acid structures.
Modified Amino Acids And Proteins
- Post-translational modifications are critical for protein activity and function; examples include phosphorylation and ubiquitination.
Nucleotides Are the Subunits of DNA and RNA
- Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups.
- Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA.
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) store and transmit genetic information.
- DNA serves as the genetic blueprint, while RNA is involved in expressing the genetic instructions.
Nucleotide Functions
- Nucleotides play a multifaceted role beyond carrying genetic information.
- They provide energy (e.g., ATP), participate in enzyme function (e.g., coenzymes), and function as intracellular signaling molecules (e.g., cyclic AMP).
Nucleosides and Nucleotides
- Nucleosides are the combination of a base and a sugar.
- Nucleotides result from a nucleoside with a phosphate group.
Is Adenosine a Nucleotide or Nucleoside? DNA or RNA?
- Adenosine is a nucleoside.
Phosphates
- Nucleotides can have one, two, or three phosphate groups.
- The phosphate group(s) influence the charge of the nucleotide and are involved in energy transfer reactions.
Phosphodiester Bond
- The phosphodiester bond connects nucleotides to form DNA and RNA polymers.
- The 5´ and 3´ carbon atoms are key for this bonding process, with subsequent bonding resulting from interactions.
Nucleic Acid Bases
- Nucleic acids utilize specific nitrogenous bases for functionality and information encoding.
Nucleic Acid Sugars
- Two specific pentose sugars (ribose and deoxyribose) are utilized for RNA and DNA, respectively.
Self-Assembly of Macromolecules
- Some macromolecules naturally assemble into complex shapes without external direction.
- Noncovalent interactions guide the folding process.
Chapter 2 Macromolecule Summary
- The summary outlines key concepts and properties of macromolecules and their monomers for students to review.
Chapter 2
- The last slide suggests reading the chapter, knowing the key terms, and preparing for a quiz.
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Description
Test your knowledge on small organic molecules and their role as building blocks for cellular macromolecules in this engaging quiz. Explore topics like condensation and hydrolysis reactions, functional groups, and the characteristics of polysaccharides. Perfect for anyone studying molecular biology or biochemistry!
