Funbio 1
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary role of organelles within a cell?

Organelles perform various essential functions necessary for the cell's survival and operation.

Describe the relationship between atoms and molecules.

Atoms join together to form molecules, which are the building blocks of more complex structures.

List the four classes of biological macromolecules.

The four classes are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Explain the importance of carbohydrates in living organisms.

<p>Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source and provide structural support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What macromolecule is primarily responsible for genetic information storage?

<p>Nucleic acids, specifically DNA, are responsible for storing and expressing genomic information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are lipids crucial for cell function?

<p>Lipids are vital for building cell membranes and serving as energy storage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do proteins contribute to cellular processes?

<p>Proteins participate in and regulate metabolic reactions, providing structure and function to cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define the biosphere in the context of ecosystems.

<p>The biosphere encompasses Earth and all of its communities, forming a global ecosystem.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the four main classes of biological molecules?

<p>Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are macromolecules and why are they important?

<p>Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms, and they are crucial as the building blocks of life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the structure of monosaccharides.

<p>Monosaccharides are simple sugars with a basic structure of one sugar unit, typically composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bond is found between monosaccharides in carbohydrates?

<p>A glycosidic bond is formed between monosaccharides.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main types of polysaccharides, and where are they commonly found?

<p>Cellulose, starch, and chitin; cellulose is found in plant cell walls, starch in plants as energy storage, and chitin in the exoskeletons of arthropods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do carbohydrates contribute to glycosylated compounds?

<p>Carbohydrates can attach to proteins or lipids, modifying their function and stability through glycosylation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of carbohydrates in an organism's biological functions?

<p>Carbohydrates provide energy, serve as energy storage, and play key roles in cell structure and communication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are carbohydrates considered a primary source of energy for organisms?

<p>Carbohydrates are easily broken down into glucose, which is a primary energy source for cellular metabolism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of collagen in the body?

<p>Collagen provides structural support and aids in the repair and formation of new cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define a polymer and provide an example from the classes of organic molecules.

<p>A polymer is a long molecule made of many similar building blocks; an example is carbohydrates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in carbohydrates?

<p>The ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in carbohydrates is 1:2:1.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bond links monosaccharides to form disaccharides?

<p>Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides to form disaccharides.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is glucose's general formula and its role in organisms?

<p>Glucose has the formula C6H12O6 and serves as a primary energy source in most organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify one common disaccharide and its composition.

<p>Sucrose is a common disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the anomeric carbon in sugar molecules?

<p>The anomeric carbon is significant because it determines the configuration of cyclic sugars.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the relationship between polysaccharides and energy storage.

<p>Polysaccharides, such as starch, serve as energy stores in organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the α and β forms of glucose?

<p>The α form has the hydroxyl group on the opposite side of the ring relative to the CH₂OH group, while the β form has the hydroxyl group on the same side.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sucrose and how is it hydrolyzed?

<p>Sucrose is common table sugar, hydrolyzed by the enzyme Invertase into an equimolar mixture of glucose and fructose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe maltose and how it is derived.

<p>Maltose is a homodimer of glucose units that occurs as a by-product of starch enzymatic hydrolysis, where water is added to break down starch.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes lactose intolerance?

<p>Lactose intolerance is caused by a lack of the enzyme lactase, which is necessary to hydrolyze lactose into glucose and galactose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines polysaccharides and their types?

<p>Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages, categorized into storage and structural types.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are storage polysaccharides and provide examples.

<p>Storage polysaccharides serve as energy reserves in living organisms and include starch in plants and glycogen in animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two forms of starch?

<p>The two forms of starch are α-Amylose, which is a linear chain, and Amylopectin, which is branched.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do bacteria in the gut affect lactose digestion?

<p>Bacteria in the gut, such as through the action of β-Galactosidase, can metabolize lactose through fermentation, producing hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes amylose from amylopectin in terms of structure?

<p>Amylose is a long unbranched chain of glucose units linked by a(1-4) bonds, while amylopectin is a highly-branched polymer with a backbone of a(1-4) linkages and branch-points of a(1-6) bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do a-amylase and b-amylase enzymes differ in their approach to starch hydrolysis?

<p>a-Amylase cleaves a(1-4) bonds randomly, producing a mixture of glucose and maltose, whereas b-Amylase cleaves single maltose units successively from the non-reducing end of the starch.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain why debranching enzyme is necessary in the degradation of starch.

<p>Debranching enzyme, a(1-6) glucosidase, is necessary to break down the a(1-6) bonds in amylopectin, which cannot be cleaved by a- or b-amylases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does glycogen serve in the human body?

<p>Glycogen serves as the stored form of glucose, primarily providing energy stored in the liver and muscles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify the primary difference between cellulose and starch in terms of glycosidic bond types.

<p>Cellulose contains β(1-4) glycosidic linkages, while starch contains a(1-4) bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of cellulose in the diet of humans?

<p>Cellulose provides roughage in the diet, aiding in digestion, but cannot be broken down by human enzymes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do humans and most animals lack the ability to digest cellulose?

<p>Humans and most animals lack the enzymes necessary to break the β(1-4) glycosidic bonds found in cellulose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what major plant structures is cellulose predominantly found?

<p>Cellulose is predominantly found in plant cell walls, with materials like wood being about 50% cellulose and cotton about 90% cellulose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Chitin, and where is it primarily found?

<p>Chitin is a structural carbohydrate found primarily in the cell wall of fungi and forms the external skeleton of arthropods like insects and crayfish.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are glycoproteins, and what role do they play in cellular processes?

<p>Glycoproteins are conjugated proteins with branched carbohydrate chains that facilitate cell-cell recognition, communication, and regulation of cellular adhesion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the process of phosphorylation and its significance in cellular functions.

<p>Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, essential for regulating cellular processes like growth, apoptosis, and signal transduction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do phosphorylated sugars function in metabolism?

<p>Phosphorylated sugars act as metabolic intermediates that are essential for energy-yielding metabolism, such as glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the reactivity of phosphorylated sugars in biochemical pathways.

<p>Phosphorylated sugars are highly reactive, allowing them to participate in glycosidic bonding and serve as substrates for enzymatic reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify two important roles of glycoproteins in cellular functions.

<p>Glycoproteins play important roles in cell-cell recognition and the regulation of cell signaling.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a phosphorylated sugar involved in glycolysis?

<p>An example of a phosphorylated sugar involved in glycolysis is glucose-6-phosphate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does phosphorylation affect sugar molecules in terms of reactivity?

<p>Phosphorylation makes sugars anionic, enhancing their reactivity and enabling them to participate in biochemical pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Macromolecules

Large molecules composed of thousands of covalently bonded atoms.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds that include sugars, starches, and cellulose, and are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Monosaccharide

A simple sugar, such as glucose or fructose, that cannot be broken down into smaller sugars.

Glycosidic bond

A bond that joins two monosaccharides together, forming a disaccharide.

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Polysaccharide

A complex carbohydrate made up of many monosaccharide units linked together.

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Cellulose

A structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, giving them strength and rigidity.

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Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants, used as a reserve food source.

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Chitin

A structural polysaccharide found in exoskeletons of arthropods and cell walls of fungi.

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Cell

The basic unit of life, composed of various organelles that perform specific functions.

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Organelles

Specialized structures within a cell that carry out specific functions. Examples include the nucleus, which contains DNA, and mitochondria, which produce energy.

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Tissue

A group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function. Examples include muscle tissue, which enables movement, and nervous tissue, which transmits signals.

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Community

A collection of different populations of organisms living and interacting within a specific environment.

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Ecosystem

A community of organisms along with their physical environment, including all the interacting biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components.

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Biosphere

The sum of all ecosystems on Earth, encompassing all living organisms and their environments.

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Atom

The smallest unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus with protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.

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Molecule

Two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds. Examples include water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

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Polymers

Large molecules made by linking together many smaller, similar building blocks called monomers.

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Monomers

The basic building blocks of polymers. They are small, repeating units that link together to form long chains.

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Disaccharides

Complex carbohydrates formed by linking two monosaccharides together. Examples include sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar).

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Glucose

The most abundant monosaccharide, used as an energy source by most organisms. It is also used to build other important molecules.

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α - Glucose

The hydroxyl group attached to the 1st carbon of the glucose ring is on the opposite side of the ring relative to the CH₂OH group attached to the 5th carbon.

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β - Glucose

The hydroxyl group attached to the 1st carbon of the glucose ring is on the same side of the ring as the CH₂OH group attached to the 5th carbon.

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Sucrose

A disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose linked by a glycosidic bond between the 1st carbon of glucose and the 2nd carbon of fructose. It's commonly known as table sugar and found in sugarcane.

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Maltose

A disaccharide composed of two glucose units linked by an α(1-4) glycosidic bond. Found in germinating grains and is a byproduct of starch hydrolysis.

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Lactose

A disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose linked by a β(1-4) glycosidic bond. It's primarily found in milk.

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Storage Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides that serve as energy storage in living organisms. They are typically branched and found in plants and organisms.

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What is Chitin?

A structural carbohydrate found in animal exoskeletons, fungal cell walls, and other biological structures.

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What are Glycoproteins?

A type of protein molecule with shorter, branched carbohydrate chains attached to them. They occur in cell membranes and play crucial roles in cell communication.

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What is Cellular Adhesion?

Glycoproteins regulate the attachment of cells together, ensuring tissues and organs can form properly.

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How do Glycoproteins contribute to Cell Communication?

Glycoproteins enable cells to communicate with each other, sending signals to coordinate their actions. This allows for the proper functioning of tissues and organs.

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What is Phosphorylation?

Adding a phosphate group to a molecule. This process plays a crucial role in regulating cell processes like growth, division, and death.

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Why are Phosphorylated Sugars Crucial?

Phosphorylated sugars are important intermediates in metabolic pathways, playing a role in the breakdown of glucose for energy.

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How does Phosphorylation influence the Reactivity of Sugars?

Phosphorylation of sugars makes them reactive, enabling them to participate in various biochemical reactions and form important bonds.

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What effect does Phosphorylation have on the charge of Sugars?

Phosphorylation makes sugars negatively charged, which is important for their interaction with other molecules and their role in metabolism.

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Amylose

A long, unbranched chain of glucose units linked by α(1-4) glycosidic bonds. It is not truly water-soluble, but forms aggregates.

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Amylopectin

A highly-branched polymer of glucose units. It has a backbone of α(1-4) glycosidic bonds with branches formed by α(1-6) glycosidic bonds. Each branch is typically about 24-30 glucose residues long.

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α-Amylase

An enzyme that breaks down α(1-4) glycosidic bonds in starch randomly. It is found in saliva and plays a role in the digestion of starch.

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β-Amylase

An enzyme that cleaves single maltose units from the non-reducing end of a starch molecule. It is specific for α(1-4) glycosidic bonds.

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Starch Hydrolysis

The process of breaking down starch molecules into smaller units, often using enzymes like α-amylase and β-amylase.

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Glycogen

The stored form of glucose in animals, primarily found in the liver and muscles. It is a highly branched polysaccharide composed of glucose units linked by α(1-4) and α(1-6) glycosidic bonds.

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Cellulose Digestion

Humans lack the enzymes necessary to break down the β(1-4) glycosidic bonds in cellulose, hence it provides dietary fiber rather than energy.

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Study Notes

Biological Molecules: Carbohydrates

  • Living things are made of four main classes of large biological molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
  • These are macromolecules, large molecules formed from thousands of covalently connected atoms.
  • Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.

Types of Carbohydrates

  • Sugars (monosaccharides): Single sugar units, like glucose (a metabolic fuel).
  • Disaccharides: Two sugar units joined, like sucrose (table sugar).
  • Polysaccharides: Many sugar units linked, like starch (energy storage) and cellulose (plants' structural component).
    • Chitin: another polysaccharide, found in the exoskeletons of insects and the cell walls of fungi.

Glucose

  • The most abundant monosaccharide.
  • Often drawn as linear skeletons but in aqueous solutions forms rings.
  • Oxidized during cellular respiration (CO2 + H2O).
  • Used as an energy source and a building block.

Glycosidic Bonds

  • Bonds that join monosaccharides to form disaccharides and polysaccharides.
  • Formed by a condensation reaction, losing water.
  • Alpha (α) and Beta (β) bonds form different structures and are crucial because the bond orientation dictates the overall function of the polymer.

Common Disaccharides

  • Lactose: Galactose + glucose (milk sugar)
  • Maltose: Glucose + glucose (produced from starch hydrolysis).
  • Sucrose: Glucose + fructose (table sugar).

Polysaccharides: Storage and Structural Polysaccharides

  • Starch: A glucose polymer stored in plants. Two forms: Amylose and Amylopectin.
  • Amylose: Unbranched chain of a(1-4) linked glucose units (~2000-500,000 Da).
  • Amylopectin: Branched chain of a(1-4) linked glucose units with branches of a(1-6).
  • Glycogen: Stored glucose in animals, Highly branched polymer of glucose, similar to amylopectin but more branched.
  • Cellulose: Major structural component of plants' cell walls. Unbranched chain of β(1-4) linked glucose units, which humans cannot digest, it's fiber.
  • Chitin: Principal structural component of fungal cell walls and exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.
    • Similar to cellulose but with a nitrogen-containing group attached to glucose.

Hydrolysis of Starch

  • Breakdown of starch into simpler sugars.
  • Different enzymes (α-amylase, β-amylase) targeting different bonds (α(1-4), α(1-6)) in starch, breaking them down into glucose and maltose.

Glycoproteins

  • Proteins with branched carbohydrate chains, important for cell-cell recognition, adhesion, and signaling.
  • Often found in membrane proteins.

Phosphorylated Sugars

  • Sugars with phosphate groups attached, important for metabolism and energy transfer.
  • Glucose-6-phosphate is the first intermediate in glucose metabolism.
  • Phosphorylation makes sugars anionic (negatively charged) and more reactive.

Reading Material

  • Refer to "The Chemistry of Life" by Solomon (10th Ed, p44-54) and "A view of Life" by Solomon (11th Ed, p6-7) for further study and detail on carbohydrate structure and function.

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This quiz explores the fundamental roles of organelles and biological macromolecules, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It covers their functions, structures, and significance in living organisms. Test your understanding of key concepts in cellular biology and macromolecular chemistry.

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