Biology Chapter on Enzyme Activity and Signaling

The ability of molecules to attract and interact with water molecules.

The tendency of molecules to repel and avoid interaction with water molecules.

Monomers are the building blocks of larger molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Polymers are large molecules made up of many repeating subunits called monomers.

The linear sequence of nucleotide bases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine) linked by phosphodiester bonds in a single strand of DNA.

The double helix formed by two complementary DNA strands held together by hydrogen bonds between base pairs (A-T and C-G).

The higher-order folding and supercoiling of DNA in the cell to fit into the nucleus.

Interactions of DNA with other molecules (proteins, RNA) to form functional complexes.

The process of energy production that requires oxygen.

The process of energy production that occurs in the absence of oxygen.

The initial phase of glycolysis where two ATP molecules are invested to split glucose into two 3-carbon sugar molecules

The second phase of glycolysis where the 3-carbon sugars are oxidized to pyruvate, producing 4 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 water molecules.

The process where pyruvate is converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), preparing it to enter the citric acid cycle.

The cycle that oxidizes acetyl-CoA, generating ATP, NADH, FADH2 and CO2. It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.

The process by which the energy stored in the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane is used to synthesize ATP. It utilizes the protein complex ATP synthase.

A measure of the energy stored in a proton gradient, used to power ATP synthesis.

Factors that can influence the rate of photosynthesis, such as light intensity, carbon dioxide levels, and temperature.

A signaling molecule that binds to a specific receptor on the target cell.

A molecule that receives a signal from a ligand and initiates a cellular response.

The process of converting an extracellular signal into an intracellular response.

A series of molecular interactions that relay a signal from the receptor to the target molecule.

Small intracellular molecules that amplify and relay signals in a signal transduction pathway.

Two chromosomes that have the same genes but potentially different alleles.

The process of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells, maintaining the chromosome number.

The process of cell division that produces four genetically unique haploid daughter cells, reducing the chromosome number.

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.

The random assortment of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I of meiosis.

The fusion of a sperm cell with an egg cell, resulting in a fertilized egg called a zygote.

Changes in an organism's DNA sequence.

A pattern of inheritance where individuals with one copy of the mutated gene will have the disease.

A pattern of inheritance where individuals need two copies of the mutated gene to have the disease.

A pattern of inheritance where the gene is located on the X chromosome.

A pattern of inheritance where the mutated gene resides on the X chromosome. Affected males pass the gene to all daughters, resulting in daughters being affected. Affected females have a 50% chance of passing the gene to their sons and daughters. Males are generally more severely affected than females.

A mode of inheritance where the defective gene is located in the mitochondrial DNA. Mutations are passed down from the mother only, as only the egg cell contributes mitochondria to the offspring. Males do not pass on the gene to their offspring, because sperm does not contribute mitochondria.

A principle of genetics that states that both parents contribute one allele for each trait to their offspring.

A principle of genetics that states that alleles for different traits segregate independently during gamete formation.

A principle of genetics that states that if two alleles are different, the dominant allele will be fully expressed while the recessive allele has no noticeable effect on the offspring's appearance.

During gamete (sperm or egg) formation, the two alleles for each heritable character separate, so each gamete receives only one allele from the pair.

The heterozygous phenotype (with one dominant and one recessive allele) is the same as the homozygous dominant phenotype. For example, if 'P' represents purple flowers and 'w' represents white flowers, both PP and Pw plants will have purple flowers.

The heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate blend between the two homozygous phenotypes. For example, if 'CR' represents red flowers and 'CW' represents white flowers, a CR CW plant would have pink flowers.

Both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous phenotype. For example, if 'IA' represents blood type A and 'IB' represents blood type B, an IA IB individual will have blood type AB.

One gene can influence multiple phenotypic characteristics (traits).

Genes occupy specific locations (loci) on chromosomes, and chromosomes segregate and assort independently during meiosis.

The phenotypic effect of a gene depends on whether it was inherited from the mother or father. This occurs due to methylation, which can silence genes depending on their parental origin.