Biology Chapter on Carbohydrates
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Questions and Answers

What is the general molecular formula for a monosaccharide?

  • C4H8O4
  • C6H12O6
  • CH2O (correct)
  • C5H10O5

    • Which of the following is NOT a common example of a monosaccharide?

  • Galactose
  • Ribose
  • Fructose
  • Glycogen (correct)

    • What is the primary function of monosaccharides in cells?

  • Storing genetic information
  • Transporting molecules across cell membranes
  • Building structural components
  • Providing energy for cellular processes (correct)

    • Which of the following is an example of a disaccharide?

    <p>Sucrose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed between two monosaccharides to create a disaccharide?

    <p>Covalent bond (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of polysaccharides?

    <p>They are typically branched structures. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of polysaccharides in organisms?

    <p>Providing structural support (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the carbon skeleton of a monosaccharide after it is broken down through cellular respiration?

    <p>It is used to build other biological molecules. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that can cause protein denaturation?

    <p>Hormonal regulation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What category of carbohydrate contains molecules with 5-carbon chains?

    <p>Pentoses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the specific type of protein affected in sickle cell disease?

    <p>Hemoglobin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the shape of red blood cells change in sickle cell disease?

    <p>They become crescent-shaped and sickle-shaped. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which two monosaccharides form the disaccharide lactose?

    <p>Glucose and galactose (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of nucleic acids?

    <p>To store, transmit, and express hereditary information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond links two monosaccharides together in a disaccharide?

    <p>Glycosidic linkage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of sucrose in plants?

    <p>Transport of sugar (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the monomer of a nucleic acid?

    <p>Nucleotide (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between DNA and RNA in terms of their sugar components?

    <p>DNA contains deoxyribose sugar, while RNA contains ribose sugar. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name for the enzyme that breaks down lactose?

    <p>Lactase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between glucose and galactose?

    <p>Arrangement of atoms around asymmetric carbons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the structure in which DNA is housed in a cell?

    <p>Chromosome (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the flow of genetic information?

    <p>DNA → RNA → protein (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the structure and function of a polysaccharide relate to its monosaccharide composition?

    <p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly describes saturated fatty acids?

    <p>They are completely saturated with hydrogen atoms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which kind of fat is primarily responsible for the solid texture of butter at room temperature?

    <p>Saturated fats (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process involves adding hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fats, converting them into saturated fats?

    <p>Hydrogenation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of adipose tissue in the human body?

    <p>To store energy in the form of fat. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a characteristic of unsaturated fats?

    <p>They are found in high concentrations in animal products. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary biological role of phospholipids?

    <p>To provide structural support for cell membranes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements describes a key difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?

    <p>Saturated fats contain no double bonds in their carbon chains, while unsaturated fats contain at least one double bond. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between cis and trans fats?

    <p>Cis fats are formed naturally, while trans fats are created artificially. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a correct base pairing in a DNA molecule?

    <p>Thymine (T) → Guanine (G) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the antiparallel arrangement of the two polynucleotide strands in a DNA molecule?

    <p>It allows for the formation of hydrogen bonds between complementary bases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structural difference between DNA and RNA?

    <p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a single RNA strand, what base replaces Thymine?

    <p>Uracil (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If one strand of a DNA molecule is 5’ ACGT 3’, what is the sequence of the other strand?

    <p>3’ TGCA 5’ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the process of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?

    <p>Dehydration synthesis forms bonds and releases energy, while hydrolysis breaks bonds and requires energy. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of polymers?

    <p>They are always linear and unbranched. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a monomer?

    <p>Glucose (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of water in biological reactions?

    <p>Water is a product in dehydration synthesis and a reactant in hydrolysis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the concept of evolutionary crossover important in understanding the structure and function of macromolecules?

    <p>It explains why all living organisms share the same basic set of macromolecules. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a class of biological macromolecule?

    <p>Amino acids (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a dehydration reaction in biological systems?

    <p>The synthesis of glycogen from glucose molecules. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly describes the relationship between monomers and polymers?

    <p>Monomers are smaller units that make up larger polymers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Macromolecules

    Very large molecules made from smaller units called monomers.

    Polymers

    Long molecules formed by linking many similar or identical monomers together.

    Monomers

    Small, repeating building blocks that make up polymers.

    Polymerization

    The process of linking monomers to form a polymer.

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    Dehydration Reaction

    A chemical reaction that binds two monomers while releasing a molecule of water.

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    Hydrolysis

    The process of breaking down polymers into monomers using water.

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    Carbohydrates

    Biological macromolecules made of monosaccharides; they provide energy.

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    Nucleic Acids

    Macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information; examples are DNA and RNA.

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    Aldose

    A monosaccharide with an aldehyde group, ranging 3-7 carbons.

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    Ketose

    A monosaccharide with a ketone group, typically found in a 6-carbon form called hexoses.

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    Glycosidic linkage

    A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by dehydration.

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    Disaccharide

    A carbohydrate formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage.

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    Maltose

    A disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules, known as malt sugar.

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    Sucrose

    The most common disaccharide, made of glucose and fructose, known as table sugar.

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    Lactose

    A disaccharide made of glucose and galactose, found in milk.

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    Polysaccharide

    Large macromolecules composed of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides linked together.

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    Proteins

    Macromolecules made up of amino acids; examples include enzymes.

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    Amino acids

    The monomers of proteins, consisting of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a unique side chain.

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    Monosaccharides

    The simplest form of carbohydrates; single sugar molecules, like glucose.

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    Glucose

    A six-carbon monosaccharide, essential for cellular respiration and energy production in cells.

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    Antiparallel strands

    Two strands of nucleic acids that run in opposite directions (5' to 3' and 3' to 5').

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    Nitrogenous base pairing

    The specific pairing of nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA: A with T (or U) and G with C.

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    Hydrogen bonds in DNA

    Weak bonds that connect nitrogenous bases between two strands of DNA to form a double helix.

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    Complementary strands

    Strands of DNA or RNA that pair through specific base pairing to stabilize the structure.

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    Structure of RNA

    Single-stranded nucleic acid that uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) found in DNA.

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    Saturated Fatty Acid

    A fatty acid with no double bonds between carbon atoms, fully saturated with hydrogen.

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    Saturated Fats

    Fats made from saturated fatty acids and glycerol; mostly solid at room temperature.

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    Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

    Health condition that can be contributed to high intake of saturated fats.

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    Unsaturated Fatty Acid

    A fatty acid containing at least one double bond between carbon atoms, resulting in fewer hydrogens.

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    Unsaturated Fats

    Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids and glycerol; usually liquid at room temperature.

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    Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil

    Unsaturated fats artificially converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogens, often solid at room temperature.

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    Function of Fats

    Mainly for energy storage, holding more energy per gram than carbohydrates.

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    Adipose Tissue

    Type of fat tissue that stores energy, cushions organs, and insulates the body.

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    Protein denaturation

    Loss of protein structure due to environmental changes like pH or temperature.

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    Sickle Cell Disease

    A genetic disorder causing abnormal hemoglobin that leads to misshapen red blood cells.

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    Normal RBC shape

    Red blood cells that are disk-shaped, allowing efficient blood flow.

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    Sickled RBC shape

    Red blood cells that are crescent-shaped and can obstruct blood flow.

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    Environmental factors causing pain crises

    Factors that can trigger painful episodes in sickle cell patients, like low oxygen or dehydration.

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    DNA

    Deoxyribonucleic acid; carries genetic information essential for cell function and heredity.

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    Nucleotide structure

    The basic unit of nucleic acids composed of a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

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    Study Notes

    Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules

    • The chapter focuses on the structure and function of large biological molecules.
    • Macromolecules are polymers built from monomers.
    • Four important classes of biological molecules are carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
    • These PowerPoints are for learning purposes only, and sharing them outside the classroom is prohibited.

    Concept 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers

    • Macromolecules are polymers, which are long chains of monomer subunits.
    • Biological macromolecules are: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids
    • Carbohydrates are a source of energy and provide structural support, their monomer is monosaccharides.
    • Proteins have a wide range of functions, such as catalyzing reactions, and transporting substances, their monomer is Amino acids.
    • Nucleic acids store genetic information and function in gene expression, their monomer is nucleotides.
    • Lipids are not polymers or macromolecules; they are a group of diverse molecules that don't mix with water well, providing energy, making up cell membranes and acting as hormones.

    Concept 5.1: Monomers and polymers

    • Polymers are long molecules made up of many similar or identical building blocks (monomers).
    • Monomers are linked via covalent bonds
    • Each class of polymer consists of different monomers, but the way they are linked together and taken apart is similar across classes.

    Concept 5.1: Polymerization (dehydration reaction)

    • Polymerization is the linkage of monomers to create a polymer.
    • Dehydration reaction is a type of condensation reaction.
    • In dehydration reactions, two monomers are bound together by covalent bonds, and water is lost in the process.
    • One monomer provides a hydroxyl group (-OH), and the other provides a hydrogen atom (-H), which forms H₂O.

    Concept 5.1: Breaking apart polymers (hydrolysis)

    • Polymers can be broken down into individual monomers through hydrolysis.
    • Water (H₂O), splits covalent bonds between monomers in the polymer chain, breaking the polymer apart.
    • One monomer receives a hydrogen atom (-H), and the other a hydroxyl group (-OH).

    Concept 5.1: Macromolecules

    • Macromolecules are extremely large molecules made of polymers.
    • Three-quarters of biological molecules are macromolecules.
    • Three biological macromolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.

    Concept 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building materials

    • Carbohydrates are molecules that end in "-ose".
    • Three main categories of carbohydrates are:
      • Monosaccharides: The monomer of carbohydrates (simple sugars).
      • Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides joined by covalent bonds (double sugars).
      • Polysaccharides: Carbohydrate macromolecules made up of polymers of monosaccharides and disaccharides.

    Concept 5.2: Monosaccharides (basic facts)

    • The basic molecular formula of monosaccharides is CH₂O.
    • Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is the most common monosaccharide.
    • Other common monosaccharides include fructose, galactose, ribose, and ribulose.

    Concept 5.2: Monosaccharides (basic facts, continued)

    • Monosaccharides form rings in aqueous solutions.
    • Cellular respiration breaks down monosaccharides.
    • Monosaccharides form other biological molecules.

    Concept 5.2: Monosaccharide categorization (3 ways)

    • Carbohydrate categorization is based on the carbonyl group location, the size of the carbon skeleton, and the arrangement of the parts around asymmetric carbons.

    Concept 5.2: Disaccharides

    • Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined together by a glycosidic linkage through a dehydration reaction.
    • Examples include maltose (malt sugar) and sucrose (table sugar).

    Concept 5.2: Disaccharides (continued)

    • Common disaccharides are sucrose, which consists of glucose and fructose, and lactose, which consists of glucose and galactose
    • Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest lactose due to a lack of the enzyme lactase.

    Concept 5.2: Polysaccharides (basic facts)

    • Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides.
    • The types of monosaccharides and the position of its glycosidic linkages determine their function.
    • Examples of functions of polysaccharides is storage and structure.

    Concept 5.2: Storage polysaccharides

    • Plants store sugar as starch.
    • Animals store sugar as glycogen.
    • Starch consists of glucose monomers linked by α-1,4-glycosidic linkages and is used as energy storage by plants.
    • Glycogen consists of glucose monomers linked by α-1,4 or α-1,6-glycosidic linkages, and acts as a storage form of energy in animals. Glycogen stores last about 1 day.

    Concept 5.2: Structural polysaccharides

    • Plants use cellulose as a structural polysaccharide.
    • Cellulose is a polymer of glucose monomers linked by β-1,4-glycosidic linkages.
    • Cellulose forms tough cell walls in plants. Cellulose is an insoluble fiber, not digestible by humans unless a symbiotic relationship exists.
    • Animals cannot digest cellulose.

    Concept 5.2: Starch vs Cellulose

    • Starch and cellulose are polymers of glucose but differ in their glycosidic linkages (α and β respectively).
    • Starch has α-1,4 glycosidic linkages creating helical structures, while cellulose has β-1,4 glycosidic linkages forming straight, nonbranched structures.

    Concept 5.2: Chitin

    • Chitin is a structural polysaccharide.
    • Chitin makes up the exoskeletons of arthropods.
    • Structure of chitin is similar to cellulose but it contains nitrogen.

    Concept 5.3: Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules

    • Lipids are not large enough to be called macromolecules, and are not polymers.
    • Lipids are primarily hydrocarbons with non-polar bonds and are hydrophobic (not water soluble).
    • Three main types of lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

    Concept 5.3: Fats (basic facts)

    • Fats consist of glycerol + three fatty acids.
    • Fats, also called triacylglycerols/triglycerides, are not polymers.
    • Fats are formed via a dehydration reaction.

    Concept 5.3: Fat structure (saturated fats)

    • Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds and their carbons are saturated with hydrogen resulting in straight chains, making them solid at room temperature.
    • Saturated fats are made of saturated fatty acids + glycerol and are common in animal fats.

    Concept 5.3: Fat structure (unsaturated fats)

    • Unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one double bond between carbon atoms in hydrocarbon chains
    • Unsaturated fatty acids have one less hydrogen per double bond, creating kinks that make them liquid at room temperature
    • Unsaturated fats are common in plant and fish fats.

    Concept 5.3: Fats (hydrogenated vegetable oil)

    • Unsaturated fats are converted into saturated fats, and create solid fats, making hydrogenated vegetable oil, a solid at room temperature, like margarine and peanut butter.
    • Hydrogenation of vegetable oils creates trans fats.
    • Trans fats are associated with coronary artery disease.

    Concept 5.3: The function of fat

    • Fats are vital for energy storage, cushioning vital organs, and insulating the body.
    • Adipose tissue stores fat for these purposes.

    Concept 5.3: Phospholipids structure

    • Phospholipids are important for cell membranes.
    • They have a hydrophilic, phosphate-containing head and two hydrophobic tails.
    • The hydrophilic heads face the watery environment, and the hydrophobic tails are in the center.

    Concept 5.3: Phospholipids structure (continued)

    • Phospholipids create a bilayer in water.
    • Hydrophilic heads are close to water (inside and outside the cells).
    • Hydrophobic tails cluster inside the membrane, away from water.

    Concept 5.3: Steroids (cholesterol)

    • Cholesterol is an essential steroid.
    • It is a component of animal cell membranes.
    • It's a precursor for other steroids, including sex hormones.
    • Cholesterol is obtained through the diet and synthesized in the liver.

    Concept 5.4: Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions

    • Proteins are major components of cells (50% of dry mass)
    • Their diversity is based on polypeptide sequence
    • Proteins can act as catalysts (enzymes)

    Concept 5.4: Protein building blocks

    • The monomer of proteins is amino acids.
    • There are 20 common amino acids important for building proteins.
    • All amino acids share a common structure: alpha carbon (central), amino group, carboxyl group, and a variable side chain ("R group").

    Concept 5.4: Amino acid functions

    • Amino acid functions are determined by their side chains (R groups).
    • Some side chains are nonpolar and hydrophobic, others polar and hydrophilic.
    • Positively and negatively charged side chains are hydrophilic.

    Concept 5.4: Protein polymers (polypeptides)

    • Proteins are unbranched polymers called polypeptides.
    • Peptide bonds hold amino acids together, formed through a dehydration reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the next.
    • The unique sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain is determined by the gene, creating a different protein structure for each type of protein.

    Concept 5.4: Protein structure (general)

    • Polypeptides can fold spontaneously, creating their specific final shape (or structure), which determines how a protein will function.
    • Proteins are categorized into two types: globular and fibrous.

    Concept 5.4: Protein function (general)

    • The function of a protein is determined by its unique 3D shape.
    • Proteins perform many vital functions in the body including recognition/binding to other molecules and include antibodies and opioid receptors.

    Concept 5.4: Four levels of protein structure

    • Proteins have four levels of structural organization:
      • Primary structure: Linear sequence of amino acids
      • Secondary structure: Localized folding (α-helix, β-sheet) determined by hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide backbone
      • Tertiary structure: Overall 3D shape of the polypeptide, determined by interactions between side chains (R groups)
      • Quaternary structure: Overall structure of proteins with more than one polypeptide chain (subunits).

    Concept 5.4: Protein denaturation

    • Denaturation is the loss of a protein's 3D structure due to environmental changes such as changes in pH, temperature and high concentrations of salt.

    Concept 5.5: Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information

    • Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.
    • The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides.
    • The polymers are polynucleotides.
    • Two types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA.
    • DNA is passed down to next cell generation
    • DNA is the blueprint for proteins
    • DNA makes RNA → proteins

    Concept 5.5: Nucleic acid structure

    • A nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.
    • DNA uses deoxyribose sugar and has four bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine.
    • RNA uses ribose sugar and has four bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil.

    Concept 5.5: Polynucleotide synthesis

    • Polynucleotides are formed by linking nucleotides.
    • A phosphodiester linkage forms between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar (pentose) of another nucleotide.
    • The 5' end has a free phosphate group and the 3' end has a free hydroxyl group.
    • The unique sequence of the nitrogenous bases codes for proteins.

    Concept 5.5: DNA and RNA structure

    • DNA is a double helix with complementary base pairings (A-T and G-C), while RNA is typically single-stranded with base pairings (A-U and G-C).
    • DNA and RNA differ in their sugars (deoxyribose vs. ribose).

    Summary Slides (Things to pay attention to)

    • The notes cover the differences between monomers, polymers, and macromolecules, a summary of the types of chemical reactions, names of linkages, important functional groups, types of macromolecules, classifications of biological molecules, structure and function of carbohydrates, list of simple and more complex monosaccharides/disaccharides, storage and structural polysaccharides, 3 types of lipids (structure and function), protein structure and function, protein folding basics (4 levels of structure), and nucleic acid structure and function.

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