Podcast
Questions and Answers
What type of organism is primarily characterized by a haploid-dominant life cycle?
What type of organism is primarily characterized by a haploid-dominant life cycle?
- Fungi (correct)
- Prokaryotes
- Animals
- Plants
What is the significance of genetic variation in the context of asexual reproduction?
What is the significance of genetic variation in the context of asexual reproduction?
- It enhances the efficiency of reproduction.
- It promotes rapid population growth.
- It is crucial for adaptation to changing environments. (correct)
- It reduces competition for resources.
Which process describes the formation of two identical daughter cells from a single parent cell?
Which process describes the formation of two identical daughter cells from a single parent cell?
- Conjugation
- Budding
- Sporulation
- Binary Fission (correct)
What is the primary advantage of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction?
What is the primary advantage of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction?
Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of rapid population growth due to asexual reproduction?
Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of rapid population growth due to asexual reproduction?
What is the function of plasmids in bacteria?
What is the function of plasmids in bacteria?
Which of the following organisms reproduce asexually through budding?
Which of the following organisms reproduce asexually through budding?
How does the diploid cell formed during conjugation in fungi return to the haploid state?
How does the diploid cell formed during conjugation in fungi return to the haploid state?
Which of these factors is NOT an advantage of external fertilisation?
Which of these factors is NOT an advantage of external fertilisation?
Which of the following is a key difference between internal and external fertilisation?
Which of the following is a key difference between internal and external fertilisation?
Which of the following is a characteristic of internal fertilisation that contributes to a higher likelihood of successful fertilisation?
Which of the following is a characteristic of internal fertilisation that contributes to a higher likelihood of successful fertilisation?
Which of the following statements is true for both internal and external fertilisation?
Which of the following statements is true for both internal and external fertilisation?
What is the main function of endosperm in angiosperms?
What is the main function of endosperm in angiosperms?
Which of the following is a key difference between the fertilisation processes in angiosperms and mammals?
Which of the following is a key difference between the fertilisation processes in angiosperms and mammals?
What is the role of the cervix in the process of internal fertilisation in mammals?
What is the role of the cervix in the process of internal fertilisation in mammals?
Which of the following BEST describes the process of implantation in mammals?
Which of the following BEST describes the process of implantation in mammals?
What is the main advantage of the synchronised release of gametes in aquatic animals that rely on external fertilisation?
What is the main advantage of the synchronised release of gametes in aquatic animals that rely on external fertilisation?
Why is parental investment in offspring generally higher in animals that practice internal fertilisation?
Why is parental investment in offspring generally higher in animals that practice internal fertilisation?
What is the role of methylation in gene expression?
What is the role of methylation in gene expression?
What is the thermosensitive period (TSP) in reptile development?
What is the thermosensitive period (TSP) in reptile development?
What is the primary function of proteins in living organisms?
What is the primary function of proteins in living organisms?
Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between amino acids and proteins?
Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between amino acids and proteins?
Which type of protein is responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood?
Which type of protein is responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood?
Which of the following examples illustrates a protein's structural role?
Which of the following examples illustrates a protein's structural role?
Which of the following is a defense protein that helps fight infection?
Which of the following is a defense protein that helps fight infection?
A change in the amino acid sequence of a protein can affect its function. Which of the following is the most likely consequence of such a change?
A change in the amino acid sequence of a protein can affect its function. Which of the following is the most likely consequence of such a change?
What happens during Telophase I of meiosis?
What happens during Telophase I of meiosis?
During which phase do chromosomes align at the center of the cell?
During which phase do chromosomes align at the center of the cell?
What is the outcome of cytokinesis I in meiosis?
What is the outcome of cytokinesis I in meiosis?
Which statement accurately describes Prophase II?
Which statement accurately describes Prophase II?
What role do spindle fibres play during Anaphase II?
What role do spindle fibres play during Anaphase II?
What initiates the fertilisation process between sperm and egg?
What initiates the fertilisation process between sperm and egg?
What structure does the embryo become known as when it is ready for implantation in the uterus?
What structure does the embryo become known as when it is ready for implantation in the uterus?
What happens after the sperm enters the egg?
What happens after the sperm enters the egg?
During which period do major organs develop in humans?
During which period do major organs develop in humans?
What is the role of the corpus luteum in the ovarian cycle?
What is the role of the corpus luteum in the ovarian cycle?
What is the main function of the umbilical cord?
What is the main function of the umbilical cord?
What occurs if fertilisation does not happen after ovulation?
What occurs if fertilisation does not happen after ovulation?
How long is the typical gestation period measured?
How long is the typical gestation period measured?
Which type of reproduction do bacteria primarily use?
Which type of reproduction do bacteria primarily use?
Which of the following methods is NOT a way that bacteria can acquire genetic variation?
Which of the following methods is NOT a way that bacteria can acquire genetic variation?
What process allows segmented worms and many echinoderms to regenerate new organisms?
What process allows segmented worms and many echinoderms to regenerate new organisms?
Which asexual reproduction method involves parts of a plant detaching to grow into new plants?
Which asexual reproduction method involves parts of a plant detaching to grow into new plants?
What type of reproduction do underground tubers (modified stems) provide for plants?
What type of reproduction do underground tubers (modified stems) provide for plants?
What is the term for an unfertilized egg developing into an individual?
What is the term for an unfertilized egg developing into an individual?
Which of these is a disadvantage of sexual reproduction?
Which of these is a disadvantage of sexual reproduction?
What is the primary function of estrogen during the follicular phase?
What is the primary function of estrogen during the follicular phase?
When does ovulation typically occur in a menstrual cycle?
When does ovulation typically occur in a menstrual cycle?
During sexual reproduction in animals, fertilization occurs primarily through which process?
During sexual reproduction in animals, fertilization occurs primarily through which process?
In which stage of plant life does the diploid sporophyte reproduce?
In which stage of plant life does the diploid sporophyte reproduce?
What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization does not occur?
What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization does not occur?
What is the role of progesterone during early pregnancy?
What is the role of progesterone during early pregnancy?
What is the primary advantage of sexual reproduction?
What is the primary advantage of sexual reproduction?
How is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) mainly produced?
How is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) mainly produced?
Which life phase in plants produces the haploid gamete?
Which life phase in plants produces the haploid gamete?
Which process involves the production of spores that are designed for dispersal?
Which process involves the production of spores that are designed for dispersal?
What initiates the hormonal changes that lead to ovulation?
What initiates the hormonal changes that lead to ovulation?
During which phase does the body secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?
During which phase does the body secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?
Which of the following asexual reproduction methods allows plants to rapidly regrow after adverse conditions like drought?
Which of the following asexual reproduction methods allows plants to rapidly regrow after adverse conditions like drought?
Meiosis during the sexual reproduction of plants produces which type of spores?
Meiosis during the sexual reproduction of plants produces which type of spores?
What is the consequence of the corpus luteum forming during the luteal phase?
What is the consequence of the corpus luteum forming during the luteal phase?
What primarily regulates the ovarian cycle?
What primarily regulates the ovarian cycle?
What is a common feature of asexual reproduction in angiosperms?
What is a common feature of asexual reproduction in angiosperms?
What primarily happens during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
What primarily happens during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
What triggers the start of menstruation?
What triggers the start of menstruation?
What is the role of oxytocin in the female reproductive system?
What is the role of oxytocin in the female reproductive system?
Which hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and facilitates ovulation?
Which hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and facilitates ovulation?
Which phase directly follows the release of the egg during ovulation?
Which phase directly follows the release of the egg during ovulation?
What is the primary purpose of mitosis in multicellular organisms?
What is the primary purpose of mitosis in multicellular organisms?
Which phase of the cell cycle involves DNA replication?
Which phase of the cell cycle involves DNA replication?
What occurs during prophase of mitosis?
What occurs during prophase of mitosis?
How does meiosis contribute to genetic diversity?
How does meiosis contribute to genetic diversity?
What is the end result of one complete meiotic division?
What is the end result of one complete meiotic division?
Which of the following statements about apoptosis is correct?
Which of the following statements about apoptosis is correct?
What is the role of centromeres during mitosis?
What is the role of centromeres during mitosis?
During which phase of meiosis does crossing over occur?
During which phase of meiosis does crossing over occur?
Which step in mitosis corresponds to the alignment of chromosomes along the cell's equator?
Which step in mitosis corresponds to the alignment of chromosomes along the cell's equator?
What is the main goal of cytokinesis?
What is the main goal of cytokinesis?
What is the significance of the G0 phase in the cell cycle?
What is the significance of the G0 phase in the cell cycle?
Independent assortment during meiosis occurs in which phase?
Independent assortment during meiosis occurs in which phase?
Which type of cells divide through meiosis?
Which type of cells divide through meiosis?
What is created as a result of mitotic division?
What is created as a result of mitotic division?
What characterizes the metaphase stage of mitosis?
What characterizes the metaphase stage of mitosis?
What is the role of helicase during DNA replication?
What is the role of helicase during DNA replication?
Which enzyme is responsible for proofreading during DNA replication?
Which enzyme is responsible for proofreading during DNA replication?
What is the significance of independent assortment during meiosis?
What is the significance of independent assortment during meiosis?
During DNA replication, what structure is formed on the lagging strand?
During DNA replication, what structure is formed on the lagging strand?
How do eukaryotic cells differ from prokaryotic cells in terms of DNA organization?
How do eukaryotic cells differ from prokaryotic cells in terms of DNA organization?
Which component of a nucleotide connects to the nitrogenous base?
Which component of a nucleotide connects to the nitrogenous base?
What occurs during transcription in eukaryotic cells?
What occurs during transcription in eukaryotic cells?
How is the genetic information maintained across generations in a species?
How is the genetic information maintained across generations in a species?
In eukaryotic cells, where does translation occur?
In eukaryotic cells, where does translation occur?
What happens if mutations occur during DNA replication?
What happens if mutations occur during DNA replication?
What is the primary purpose of ligase during DNA replication?
What is the primary purpose of ligase during DNA replication?
What type of genetic variation results from crossing over?
What type of genetic variation results from crossing over?
What is Chargaff's rule regarding nitrogenous bases?
What is Chargaff's rule regarding nitrogenous bases?
What is the primary function of testosterone in males?
What is the primary function of testosterone in males?
Which hormone is critical for maintaining the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
Which hormone is critical for maintaining the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
What is a chemical pregnancy?
What is a chemical pregnancy?
During which week does the baby's heart begin to beat?
During which week does the baby's heart begin to beat?
What is one disadvantage of artificial insemination?
What is one disadvantage of artificial insemination?
Which reproductive technology manipulates plant reproduction asexually?
Which reproductive technology manipulates plant reproduction asexually?
What is a potential ethical concern associated with selective breeding?
What is a potential ethical concern associated with selective breeding?
What is one function of oxytocin in the reproductive process?
What is one function of oxytocin in the reproductive process?
In which type of pregnancy does the fertilized egg implant outside the uterine cavity?
In which type of pregnancy does the fertilized egg implant outside the uterine cavity?
Which of the following methods involves removing pollen from one plant to fertilize another?
Which of the following methods involves removing pollen from one plant to fertilize another?
What does the process of grafting in plants involve?
What does the process of grafting in plants involve?
Which organ does hCG primarily target during pregnancy?
Which organ does hCG primarily target during pregnancy?
What is one key characteristic of embryos during Weeks 13-20?
What is one key characteristic of embryos during Weeks 13-20?
Which term describes the use of scientific knowledge to influence the reproductive traits of plants or animals?
Which term describes the use of scientific knowledge to influence the reproductive traits of plants or animals?
What is the outcome when alleles of the same gene separate randomly during meiosis?
What is the outcome when alleles of the same gene separate randomly during meiosis?
Which principle states that when gametes form, alleles are separated, so each gamete carries only one allele for each gene?
Which principle states that when gametes form, alleles are separated, so each gamete carries only one allele for each gene?
Which statement accurately describes Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment?
Which statement accurately describes Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment?
What is the primary benefit of beneficial mutations in a species?
What is the primary benefit of beneficial mutations in a species?
Which of the following describes crossing over during meiosis?
Which of the following describes crossing over during meiosis?
Which of Mendel's crosses represents a hybrid form from a purebred dominant and purebred recessive?
Which of Mendel's crosses represents a hybrid form from a purebred dominant and purebred recessive?
What is the significance of mutations in a population?
What is the significance of mutations in a population?
In the context of monohybrid crosses, what does the term 'monohybrid' specifically refer to?
In the context of monohybrid crosses, what does the term 'monohybrid' specifically refer to?
What does an allele represent in genetics?
What does an allele represent in genetics?
Which of the following statements best describes the principle of dominance?
Which of the following statements best describes the principle of dominance?
What is the term for an organism's genetic makeup?
What is the term for an organism's genetic makeup?
Which term describes the observable characteristics of an organism?
Which term describes the observable characteristics of an organism?
In which scenario would incomplete dominance occur?
In which scenario would incomplete dominance occur?
Which of the following best describes codominance?
Which of the following best describes codominance?
Which genetic inheritance pattern involves multiple alleles?
Which genetic inheritance pattern involves multiple alleles?
What does it mean for an allele to be dominant?
What does it mean for an allele to be dominant?
How can a person express a recessive trait?
How can a person express a recessive trait?
Which statement is true about autosomal dominant inheritance?
Which statement is true about autosomal dominant inheritance?
What are sex-linked traits?
What are sex-linked traits?
How is a carrier defined in genetics?
How is a carrier defined in genetics?
What does a pedigree represent in genetics?
What does a pedigree represent in genetics?
Which characteristic defines a homozygous organism?
Which characteristic defines a homozygous organism?
Which of the following is NOT a factor in non-Mendelian inheritance patterns?
Which of the following is NOT a factor in non-Mendelian inheritance patterns?
Which of the following combinations could denote a hemophilic male?
Which of the following combinations could denote a hemophilic male?
What is the main purpose of using pedigrees in zoos?
What is the main purpose of using pedigrees in zoos?
What is the outcome when the Hardy-Weinberg principle conditions are met?
What is the outcome when the Hardy-Weinberg principle conditions are met?
What does a fixed allele signify in a population?
What does a fixed allele signify in a population?
How do polygenic traits differ from single-gene traits?
How do polygenic traits differ from single-gene traits?
What describes single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?
What describes single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?
What happens if a population does not meet Hardy-Weinberg conditions?
What happens if a population does not meet Hardy-Weinberg conditions?
How is allele frequency defined in a population?
How is allele frequency defined in a population?
What is a characteristic of polymorphism in genetics?
What is a characteristic of polymorphism in genetics?
Which of the following describes the additive effect in polygenic inheritance?
Which of the following describes the additive effect in polygenic inheritance?
What must be true for a SNP to be classified as such?
What must be true for a SNP to be classified as such?
What is the Hardy-Weinberg formula used to demonstrate?
What is the Hardy-Weinberg formula used to demonstrate?
What is the impact of selective breeding on allele frequencies?
What is the impact of selective breeding on allele frequencies?
What is the primary characteristic of a gene that shows polymorphism?
What is the primary characteristic of a gene that shows polymorphism?
What does a high allele frequency of a recessive trait indicate?
What does a high allele frequency of a recessive trait indicate?
What is the primary function of mRNA during protein synthesis?
What is the primary function of mRNA during protein synthesis?
During transcription, which enzyme is responsible for synthesizing the mRNA strand?
During transcription, which enzyme is responsible for synthesizing the mRNA strand?
Which base sequence represents a start codon for protein synthesis?
Which base sequence represents a start codon for protein synthesis?
What role does tRNA play in the process of translation?
What role does tRNA play in the process of translation?
What happens when a stop codon is reached during translation?
What happens when a stop codon is reached during translation?
How do mutations in the DNA sequence potentially affect protein synthesis?
How do mutations in the DNA sequence potentially affect protein synthesis?
Which of the following describes the pairing of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons?
Which of the following describes the pairing of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons?
What is the role of epigenetic marks in gene expression?
What is the role of epigenetic marks in gene expression?
What determines whether a protein is functional?
What determines whether a protein is functional?
In the context of twin studies, what do identical twins help to clarify?
In the context of twin studies, what do identical twins help to clarify?
Which of the following is true regarding peptide bonds?
Which of the following is true regarding peptide bonds?
What is the significance of the triplet code in RNA?
What is the significance of the triplet code in RNA?
What outcome occurs when a regulated gene is inhibited by epigenetic marks?
What outcome occurs when a regulated gene is inhibited by epigenetic marks?
What happens to mRNA after it has been used in protein synthesis?
What happens to mRNA after it has been used in protein synthesis?
Which of the following structures of a protein is responsible for its overall 3D shape?
Which of the following structures of a protein is responsible for its overall 3D shape?
What type of bonding is responsible for the formation of alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets in proteins?
What type of bonding is responsible for the formation of alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets in proteins?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the difference between globular and fibrous proteins?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the difference between globular and fibrous proteins?
What is the role of the variable region (HVR) in antibodies?
What is the role of the variable region (HVR) in antibodies?
How does alternative splicing contribute to the diversity of proteins in humans?
How does alternative splicing contribute to the diversity of proteins in humans?
What is the primary function of haemoglobin?
What is the primary function of haemoglobin?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of fibrous proteins?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of fibrous proteins?
What is the relationship between genotype and phenotype?
What is the relationship between genotype and phenotype?
What is the significance of random fertilisation in sexual reproduction?
What is the significance of random fertilisation in sexual reproduction?
Which of the following mutations is most likely to have a significant impact on the function of a protein?
Which of the following mutations is most likely to have a significant impact on the function of a protein?
Flashcards
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction generating offspring from a single parent, genetically identical.
Budding
Budding
A form of asexual reproduction where a new organism develops from a bud on the parent.
Binary Fission
Binary Fission
Asexual reproduction in which a single organism splits into two identical organisms.
Genetic Variation
Genetic Variation
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Haploid-Dominant Life Cycle
Haploid-Dominant Life Cycle
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Sporulation
Sporulation
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Plasmids
Plasmids
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Intraspecific Competition
Intraspecific Competition
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Internal fertilisation
Internal fertilisation
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Gamete positioning
Gamete positioning
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Fewer offspring produced
Fewer offspring produced
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Mating rituals
Mating rituals
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External fertilisation
External fertilisation
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Environmental cues in spawning
Environmental cues in spawning
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Pollination
Pollination
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Zygote formation
Zygote formation
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Implantation in mammals
Implantation in mammals
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Endosperm formation
Endosperm formation
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Fertilisation
Fertilisation
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Acrosome
Acrosome
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Zygote
Zygote
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Blastocyst
Blastocyst
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Implantation
Implantation
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Morula
Morula
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Embryonic period
Embryonic period
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Gestation period
Gestation period
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Female menstrual cycle
Female menstrual cycle
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Ovarian cycle
Ovarian cycle
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Follicular phase
Follicular phase
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Dominant follicle
Dominant follicle
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Ovulation
Ovulation
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LH surge
LH surge
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Luteal phase
Luteal phase
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Corpus luteum
Corpus luteum
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Progesterone
Progesterone
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Oestrogen
Oestrogen
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Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
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Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
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Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
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Menstrual bleeding
Menstrual bleeding
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Oxytocin
Oxytocin
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Conjugation
Conjugation
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Transformation
Transformation
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Transduction
Transduction
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Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis
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Vegetative Reproduction
Vegetative Reproduction
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Fragmentation
Fragmentation
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Tuber
Tuber
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Apomixis
Apomixis
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Alternation of Generations
Alternation of Generations
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Sporophyte
Sporophyte
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Gametes
Gametes
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Meiosis
Meiosis
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Mutations
Mutations
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Genotype Variation
Genotype Variation
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Mendel's Laws
Mendel's Laws
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Law of Segregation
Law of Segregation
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Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Independent Assortment
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Beneficial Mutations
Beneficial Mutations
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Crossing Over
Crossing Over
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Random Segregation
Random Segregation
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Independent Assortment Effect
Independent Assortment Effect
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Alleles
Alleles
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Methylation
Methylation
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Thermosensitive Period (TSP)
Thermosensitive Period (TSP)
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Sox9 gene
Sox9 gene
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Amino acids
Amino acids
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Proteins
Proteins
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Enzymes
Enzymes
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Structural proteins
Structural proteins
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Transport proteins
Transport proteins
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Antibodies
Antibodies
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Primary Structure
Primary Structure
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Secondary Structure
Secondary Structure
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Tertiary Structure
Tertiary Structure
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Quaternary Structure
Quaternary Structure
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Globular Proteins
Globular Proteins
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Fibrous Proteins
Fibrous Proteins
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Proteome
Proteome
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Testosterone
Testosterone
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hCG
hCG
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Chemical Pregnancy
Chemical Pregnancy
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Ectopic Pregnancy
Ectopic Pregnancy
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Fertilisation Timeline
Fertilisation Timeline
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Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative Propagation
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Selective Breeding
Selective Breeding
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Artificial Insemination
Artificial Insemination
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Artificial Pollination
Artificial Pollination
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Embryonic Transfer
Embryonic Transfer
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Pregnancy Test
Pregnancy Test
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Signs of Failed Pregnancy
Signs of Failed Pregnancy
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Homozygous
Homozygous
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Heterozygous
Heterozygous
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Genotype
Genotype
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Phenotype
Phenotype
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Dominant gene
Dominant gene
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Recessive gene
Recessive gene
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Autosomal DNA
Autosomal DNA
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Autosomal dominant inheritance
Autosomal dominant inheritance
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Codominance
Codominance
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Incomplete dominance
Incomplete dominance
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Multiple alleles
Multiple alleles
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Sex linkage
Sex linkage
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Pedigree
Pedigree
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Hereditary
Hereditary
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Independent Assortment
Independent Assortment
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Anaphase I
Anaphase I
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Telophase I
Telophase I
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Metaphase II
Metaphase II
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Telophase II
Telophase II
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Cell Division
Cell Division
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Interphase
Interphase
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Prophase
Prophase
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Metaphase
Metaphase
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Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
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G1 Phase
G1 Phase
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S Phase
S Phase
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G2 Phase
G2 Phase
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Apoptosis
Apoptosis
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Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous Chromosomes
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Cytokinesis II
Cytokinesis II
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Genetic Locus
Genetic Locus
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Chromatin
Chromatin
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Sister Chromatids
Sister Chromatids
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DNA Replication
DNA Replication
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Leading Strand
Leading Strand
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Okazaki Fragments
Okazaki Fragments
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DNA Polymerase
DNA Polymerase
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Semi-Conservative Replication
Semi-Conservative Replication
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Eukaryotic DNA
Eukaryotic DNA
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Prokaryotic DNA
Prokaryotic DNA
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Transcription
Transcription
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Translation
Translation
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mRNA
mRNA
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tRNA
tRNA
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Codon
Codon
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Anticodon
Anticodon
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Peptide Bond
Peptide Bond
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Polypeptide Chain
Polypeptide Chain
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Stop Codon
Stop Codon
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Gene Mutation
Gene Mutation
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Constitutive Genes
Constitutive Genes
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Regulated Genes
Regulated Genes
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DNA Methylation
DNA Methylation
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Inbreeding
Inbreeding
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Outbreeding program
Outbreeding program
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Polygenic inheritance
Polygenic inheritance
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Allele frequency
Allele frequency
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Fixed allele
Fixed allele
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Hardy-Weinberg principle
Hardy-Weinberg principle
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Genetic drift
Genetic drift
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Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
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Homozygous recessive
Homozygous recessive
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Polymorphism
Polymorphism
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Selection pressure
Selection pressure
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Contributing allele
Contributing allele
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Study Notes
Asexual Reproduction
- Generates offspring genetically identical to the single parent.
- Populations can rapidly increase in stable environments.
- Requires no energy investment for finding a mate.
- Lack of genetic variation limits species to specific habitats.
- Species are vulnerable to extinction if environmental conditions change.
- Rapid population growth can lead to overcrowding and intraspecific competition.
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
Budding
- Outgrowth of a body region separating to form two individuals.
- Common in protists and fungi.
- New organisms develop as separate forms from their parents, only becoming independent after maturity.
- New organisms can begin budding of their own.
- Fungi can be unicellular (e.g., yeast) or multicellular. Their life cycles alternate between vegetative (haploid) and reproductive phases.
- Asexual reproduction involves budding or fission in favorable conditions.
- Under unfavorable conditions or nutrient limitation, a process of conjugation can produce a diploid cell that undergoes sporulation for spore production.
Binary Fission
- Organisms split longitudinally into two separate organisms.
- Each partial cell develops the missing internal structures.
- Common in prokaryotic cells (e.g., bacteria) and some protozoa.
- Bacteria have a circular chromosome in the nucleoid.
- Bacteria can also contain plasmids.
- Bacteria reproduce asexually via binary fission, and can also acquire genetic variation through conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
- Protists can use binary fission and budding.
Fragmentation
- A body part detaches and develops into a new organism.
- The original organism regenerates the lost part.
- Common in segmented worms and some echinoderms.
- Mitosis drives the rapid growth of new cells to rebuild muscle fibers and internal structures.
- Fragmentation can be intentional or unintentional.
Parthenogenesis
- Unfertilized egg develops into a complete individual.
- Offspring can be haploid or diploid depending on species.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
- Common in angiosperms (flowering plants).
Bulb
- Underground bulbous stem and fleshy leaves store nourishment for dormancy.
Fragmentation
- Broken pieces of the parent plant regenerate to form new plants.
Rhizome
- Horizontal stems under the ground send out suckers (new shoots and roots) to produce new plants.
Runner
- Above-ground stems produce new shoots and roots at nodes.
Sucker
- Growth developing from a plant's rootstock.
- Can lead to rapid regrowth after environmental damage.
Tuber
- Underground modified stem storing starch as energy.
Apomixis
- Some plants produce offspring from generative tissues without fertilization or seeds.
- Includes parthenogenesis in some animal species.
Sexual Reproduction
- Two parents contribute genetic material for unique offspring.
- Greater genetic variation allows species to survive in a wider range of environments.
- Beneficial genetic variations are preserved, while unfavorable ones are eliminated more effectively.
- Reproduction is slower and demands energy for reproductive structures and gametes.
- Recombination can break apart advantageous gene combinations or introduce harmful variations.
- Finding and courting a mate can be costly in terms of energy and time.
- Two types of fertilization: external and internal.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
- Fertilization involves the union of male and female gametes (sperm and egg) internally or externally.
- This is influenced by the species' environment.
Internal Fertilization
- The joining of gametes occurs inside the female's body, increasing the likelihood of successful fertilization.
- Often involves fewer gametes due to higher success rates, and reduced parental investment can lead to greater offspring survival.
- Prevalent in terrestrial environments.
External Fertilization
- The joining of gametes occurs outside the female's body.
- Often results in large numbers of offspring.
- Less parental care, with limited investment in mating or offspring rearing.
- More offspring die due to environmental conditions and lack of parental care.
- More gametes needed for successful fertilization.
- More common in aquatic environments.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
- Consists of two phases: sporophyte (diploid) and gametophyte (haploid).
- Both phases are multicellular and reproduce via mitosis.
- Heterosporous spores produce one or more ovules inside the ovary in angiosperms.
Pollination and Fertilization in Angiosperms
- Pollination: Pollen lands on the stigma.
- Fertilization: A pollen tube grows through the style to the ovule, where a sperm fertilizes an egg.
- Fertilized egg divides to form an embryo.
- A separate sperm fertilizes polar bodies to produce triploid endosperm (food for embryo).
- The ovary develops into a fruit, protecting and dispersing the seeds.
Fertilization, Implantation, and Hormonal Control in Mammals
- Internal fertilization results in genetically unique offspring.
- Male and female reproductive organs produce gametes (sperm and egg).
- In placental mammals, the developing zygote implants itself in the uterine wall endometrium.
- Various developmental stages occur before birth.
Fertilization and Implantation in Humans
- Sperm penetrates the egg's protective layer using enzymes from the acrosome.
- Sperm nuclei fuses with the egg's nucleus to create a diploid zygote.
- Zygote travels to the uterus and implants.
- Blastocyst (ball of cells) implants in the uterine lining (endometrium).
- Embryo receives nutrients directly from the uterus.
Ovarian and Menstrual Cycles
- Ovarian Cycle:
- Maturation of egg and follicle.
- Egg release (ovulation).
- Corpus luteum formation.
- Menstrual Cycle:
- Preparation and maintenance of uterine wall for implantation.
- Shedding of uterine lining if no implantation.
Hormones Involved in Pregnancy
- FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone, hCG, oxytocin, testosterone.
- FSH and LH regulate the ovarian cycle.
- Estrogen and progesterone prepare and maintain the uterus for pregnancy.
- hCG maintains the corpus luteum during early pregnancy.
- Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk release.
Impact of Scientific Knowledge on Reproduction Manipulation
-
Selective Breeding (Sexual):
- Understanding genetics to select for desirable traits.
- Reduced genetic diversity. Diseases and weaknesses may increase.
-
Artificial Insemination (Sexual):
- Understanding reproductive cycles and hormones to control insemination.
- Reduced need for many males. Gene diversity is potential improvement.
-
Vegetative Propagation (Asexual):
- Cloning plants.
- Limited biodiversity in the long term.
-
Embryonic Transfer (Sexual):
- Transferring embryos for reproduction, particularly with livestock.
-
Artificial Pollination:
- Controlling pollination for crossbreeding and increased crop yield.
Cell Replication Processes
- Cell Cycle:
- Interphase (G1, S, G2): Growth, DNA replication, preparation for division (G0 = non-dividing cells).
- Mitosis:
- PMAT (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase): Dividing nucleus to produce two identical diploid daughter cells for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
- Meiosis:
- Two divisions.
- Reduces chromosome number.
- Produces four haploid, genetically unique daughter cells (gametes) for sexual reproduction.
DNA Replication
- Semi-conservative replication: Each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one new strand.
- Enzymes involved: Helicase, DNA polymerase, primase, ligase, SSB proteins.
- Leading and lagging strands. Okazaki fragments.
- Proofreading mechanisms ensure accuracy.
Effect of Cell Replication on Species Continuity
- Mitosis maintains genetic consistency for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
- Meiosis introduces genetic variation for adapting to changing environments and for speciation.
- Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring.
- Sexual reproduction generates unique offspring from combined genetic material.
DNA in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
- Prokaryotes:
- Circular DNA in nucleoid.
- Plasmids (small rings of DNA).
- No histones.
- Eukaryotes:
- Linear DNA in nucleus.
- Histones.
- Mitochondria and chloroplast DNA.
Polypeptide Synthesis (Transcription and Translation)
- Transcription:
- DNA code is copied to mRNA.
- RNA polymerase produces mRNA using DNA template.
- Translation:
- Ribosomes translate mRNA code into a polypeptide chain.
- tRNA molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome.
- Codons (3-base sequences) on mRNA determine amino acid sequence.
- Polypeptides fold into functional proteins.
Genes, Environment, and Phenotypic Expression
- Genetics - Twin Studies:
- Identical twins share DNA; differences reflect environment. Non-identical reflect both environment and genes.
- Environmental Effects:
- Constitutive genes are always expressed.
- Regulated genes express differently depending on factors, such as epigenetic modifications (e.g., DNA methylation).
- Case Study - Reptile Gender:
- Incubation temperature influences sex determination in some reptiles by affecting gene expression.
Protein Structure and Function
- Structure:
- Primary, secondary (alpha helix, beta sheet), tertiary, quaternary levels.
- Amino acid sequence determines a protein's shape and function.
- Interactions between amino acid side chains form the tertiary structure.
- Function:
- Enzymes, structural proteins, transport proteins, storage proteins, hormones, receptors, contractile proteins, defense proteins.
Genetic Variation
- Meiosis:
- Crossing over (exchange of genetic material).
- Independent assortment (random segregation of chromosomes).
- Random fertilization (combination of unique gametes).
- Mutations:
- Changes in DNA sequences to produce new alleles and genotypes.
- Genotype Variation:
- New combinations of alleles result from meiosis, fertilization, and mutations
- Hereditary factors from each parent are combined.
Mendel’s Laws and Inheritance
- Mendel's Laws:
- Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.
- Independent assortment: Alleles for different traits are inherited independently.
- Dominance: Recessive alleles are masked by dominant alleles
- Monohybrid crosses:
- Studying inheritance of a single trait.
Polygenic Inheritance and Allele Frequencies
- Polygenic traits: Influenced by multiple genes.
- Allele frequencies: Rates of specific alleles in a population.
- Hardy-Weinberg principle: Describes allele and genotype frequencies in a non-evolving population.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
- SNPs: Single base variations in DNA sequences.
- Relevance: SNPs are frequently linked with disease, drug responses, and other phenotypic traits.
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