Biology Chapter: Cells, Genetics, Evolution, Ecology

Cell Structure and Function

Cells: Fundamental unit of life.
Prokaryotic Cells: No nucleus; bacteria and archaea.
- Example: E. coli
Eukaryotic Cells: Nucleus present; plants, animals, fungi, protists.
- Organelles: Mitotic division, metabolism, protein synthesis.

Genetics

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Genetic blueprint; double helix structure.
Chromosomes: Structures within cells that contain DNA.
- Humans: 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Genes: Segments of DNA that code for proteins.
Alleles: Different forms of a gene.
Mendelian Genetics: Principles of inheritance by Gregor Mendel.
- Dominant and recessive traits.

Evolution

Natural Selection: Process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Evolutionary Theory: Proposed by Charles Darwin.
- Common ancestry.
- Adaptation over time.

Ecology

Ecosystem: Community of living organisms and their physical environment.
Biotic Factors: Living components (plants, animals).
Abiotic Factors: Non-living components (water, temperature).
Food Chains and Webs: Energy flow and trophic levels.
- Producers (autotrophs) → Consumers (heterotrophs) → Decomposers.

Physiology

Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal conditions.
- Examples: Body temperature, pH level.
Nervous System: Controls and coordinates actions via electrical signals.
Endocrine System: Hormonal regulation of bodily functions.

Anatomy

Human Body Systems:
- Circulatory, Respiratory, Digestive, Musculoskeletal, Nervous, Endocrine, Immune.
Organs: Specialized structures (heart, lungs, brain, liver).
Tissues: Groups of cells with a common structure/function.
- Types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous.

Biotechnology

Genetic Engineering: Modification of an organism's DNA.
Cloning: Producing genetically identical individuals.
CRISPR: Technology for precise gene editing.

Microbiology

Microorganisms: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa.
Pathogens: Disease-causing agents (e.g., bacteria causing infections).
Antibiotics: Drugs that kill bacteria or inhibit their growth.

Plant Biology

Photosynthesis: Process by which plants convert sunlight into chemical energy.
- Formula: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2.
Plant Structures: Roots, stems, leaves, flowers.
Transport Systems: Xylem (water) and phloem (nutrients).

Animal Behavior

Innate Behavior: Instinctual or reflex actions.
Learned Behavior: Acquired through experience.
Social Behavior: Interactions among individuals within a species.

Molecular Biology

Proteins: Essential macromolecules made from amino acids.
Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.
Cell Signaling: Communication between cells via signaling molecules.

Human Biology

Reproductive System: Involves gamete production and fertilization.
Immune Response: Body's defense mechanisms against pathogens.
Metabolism: Chemical processes for maintaining life (catabolism and anabolism).

Cell Structure and Function

Cells: The fundamental unit of life, responsible for all living processes.
Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles; found in bacteria and archaea.
- Example: E. coli bacteria.
Eukaryotic Cells: Possess a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles; found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
- Organelles like mitochondria are crucial for energy production, and ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.

Genetics

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The molecule that carries genetic instructions; structured as a double helix.
Chromosomes: Structures within the nucleus containing tightly packaged DNA.
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Genes: Segments of DNA that code for specific proteins.
Alleles: Alternate forms of a gene, contributing to variation in traits.
Mendelian Genetics: Principles of inheritance, established by Gregor Mendel; explains patterns of dominant and recessive traits.

Evolution

Natural Selection: The driving force of evolution; organisms with traits better suited to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully.
Evolutionary Theory: Proposed by Charles Darwin; explains the diversity of life through common ancestry and the gradual accumulation of adaptations over time.

Ecology

Ecosystem: A community of living organisms (biotic factors) interacting with their non-living environment (abiotic factors).
Biotic Factors: Include plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria.
Abiotic Factors: Include temperature, water, sunlight, and soil composition.
Food Chains and Webs: Illustrate the flow of energy through ecosystems, with producers (autotrophs) converting sunlight into energy, followed by consumers (heterotrophs) and decomposers.

Physiology

Homeostasis: The maintenance of stable internal conditions within an organism, despite external changes.
- Examples: Regulating body temperature, blood sugar levels, and pH balance.
Nervous System: Controls and coordinates bodily functions through electrical signals, enabling rapid communication and response.
Endocrine System: Regulates bodily functions through hormones, which are chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream.

Anatomy

Human Body Systems: Complex, interconnected systems responsible for maintaining life.
- Examples include the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, musculoskeletal, nervous, endocrine, and immune systems.
Organs: Specialized structures composed of different tissues, performing specific functions; examples include the heart, lungs, brain, liver.
Tissues: Groups of similar cells working together to perform a specific function.
- Types include epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.

Biotechnology

Genetic Engineering: The modification of an organism's genetic material to alter its characteristics.
Cloning: The process of creating genetically identical copies of an organism.
CRISPR-Cas9: A revolutionary gene editing technology that allows for precise alterations to DNA sequences.

Microbiology

Microorganisms: Diverse group of tiny living organisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
Pathogens: Disease-causing microorganisms, such as bacteria that cause infections.
Antibiotics: Drugs that target and kill bacteria or inhibit their growth, used to treat bacterial infections.

Plant Biology

Photosynthesis: The process by which plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy (glucose).
- Formula: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Plant Structures: Roots, stems, leaves, and flowers are specialized structures with specific functions.
Transport Systems: Xylem vessels transport water from roots to leaves, while phloem vessels transport sugars and other nutrients throughout the plant.

Animal Behavior

Innate Behavior: Instinctive or reflex actions, present at birth and not learned through experience.
Learned Behavior: Acquired through experience and interaction with the environment.
Social Behavior: Interactions among individuals within a species, often involving communication, cooperation, and competition.

Molecular Biology

Proteins: Essential macromolecules composed of amino acids, performing various functions in cells and organisms.
Enzymes: Proteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding up biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
Cell Signaling: Communication between cells through signaling molecules, enabling coordination and regulation of cellular functions.

Human Biology

Reproductive System: Responsible for producing gametes (sperm and egg) and facilitating fertilization.
Immune Response: The body's defense mechanisms against pathogens, involving various cells and processes to identify and destroy invading organisms.
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical processes that occur within cells to maintain life, including catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules).