Biology Chapter: Cell Functions and Structures

Biology 121 Final Exam Study Guide

• 100 points, with 30 multiple-choice questions, matching, and short answer questions
• Short answer sections on chapters not yet covered
• Understand steps of meiosis and other biological processes
• Know figures like meiosis steps; ensure you understand figures
• Helpful Resources:
  • Quizlet.com/user/quinnsterlingg/folders/biological-science
  • Quizlet.com/985026620/bio-final-flash-cards/

Chapter 1: Scientific Literacy

• General factual understanding of biology, scientific method, along with social implications of scientific information
• Biological literacy means the ability to think critically about global issues, communicate thoughts and integrate the ideas into decision-making processes.

Chapter 1: Scientific Thinking

• The OHPEC method (observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, conclusion)
  • Observation: Analyzing the world and asking questions based on gathered information
  • Hypothesis: Forming an educated guess (null or alternative) based on observations
  • Prediction: Indicating what will occur
  • Experimentation: Testing the hypothesis using independent, dependent, and control variables
  • Conclusion: Analyzing data and forming conclusions; the process is flexible and can be self-correcting

Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

• Atoms: The smallest unit of matter, which cannot be broken down without losing its properties
• Elements: Materials composed of only one type of atom.
• Atoms are made up of a central nucleus with protons (positive charge), neutrons (no charge), and electrons (negative charge) orbiting the nucleus.
• Ions: Atoms that have gained or lost electrons and now have a charge

Chapter 2: Chemical Bonds

• Covalent: Two atoms share electrons
• Ionic: Two oppositely charged atoms transfer electrons
• Hydrogen: A weaker bond between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom in another molecule. Water exemplifies this.

Chapter 2: Characteristics of Water

• Cohesion: Water molecules stick together
• High Surface Tension: Water's strong cohesion makes it possible for small insects to walk on the surface.
• Reduced Density as a Solid (Ice): Ice is less dense than liquid water. Water molecules are more spaced out to maximize hydrogen bonding.
• High Heat Capacity: Water absorbs significant heat without a large temperature change.
• Good Solvent: Water dissolves many substances due to its polarity (having positive and negative ends)

Chapter 3: Structures and Functions of Carbohydrates and Lipids

• Glucose: A biologically crucial simple sugar, the primary energy source for cells
• Complex Carbohydrates: Multiple sugars joined together (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose)
• Lipids: Large, nonpolar molecules, not soluble in water; important for cell membranes and energy storage.
• Proteins: Composed of amino acids, with various structures and functions in the body (enzymes, structure, signaling)
• Amino acids: Building blocks of proteins, each with a unique side chain.

Chapter 3: Protein Structures

• Primary structure: The unique linear sequence of amino acids
• Secondary structure: Folding patterns (alpha-helices and beta-sheets) held together by hydrogen bonds
• Tertiary structure: Three-dimensional shape of the polypeptide chain
• Quaternary structure: Multiple polypeptide chains combine

Chapter 4: Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA: Both polymers built from nucleotides comprising a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base; used for storing genetic information and protein synthesis
• DNA Structure: Double-stranded helix, paired bases adenine with thymine, cytosine with guanine
• RNA structure: Single-stranded

Chapter 4: Cells - Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

• Eukaryotic cells: Containing a membrane-bound nucleus and other organelles
• Prokaryotic cells: Lacking a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles

Chapter 5: Organelles

• Nucleus: Stores DNA
• Mitochondria: Produces ATP
• Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein production
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Lipid synthesis
• Golgi Apparatus: Protein modification/packaging
• Lysosomes: Waste breakdown
• Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell
• Cytoskeleton: Cell support/movement
• Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis
• Cell Wall: Plant support/protection
• Vacuoles: Storage

Chapter 6: Plasma Membrane

• Passive Transport: Movement of substances across a membrane without energy input (diffusion, osmosis)
• Active Transport: Movement of substances against their concentration gradient with energy (ATP)
• Endocytosis: Taking large particles into the cell
• Exocytosis: Moving large particles out of the cell

Chapter 7: DNA and Gene Expression

• Transcription: Copying a gene's sequence into mRNA
• Translation: Using mRNA to create a protein
• Operons: Groups of genes that are coordinately regulated in prokaryotes
• Function and importance of these processes

Chapter 7: Biotechnology

• Uses technology to alter living organisms
• Restriction enzymes & their role in modifying DNA
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and their characteristics
• Applications of biotechnology in different fields

Chapter 8: Chromosomes and Cell Division

• Mitosis: Cell division in somatic cells creating two genetically identical daughter cells
• Interphase: Cell cycle phases prior to mitosis (growing, replicating, preparing) (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
• Meiosis: Cell division producing gametes (sex cells); results in four genetically different daughter cells
• Stages of meiosis, significance, and variation generation

Chapter 9: Genes and Inheritance

• Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual
• Phenotype: The observable traits of an individual
• Genotypic vs Phenotypic relationships and their significance, importance, how to represent, and predict results
• Punnett squares
• Test cross: A method to determine the genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype

Chapter 9: Inheritance Patterns

• Dominant and recessive alleles
• Incomplete dominance
• Codominance
• Multiple alleles
• Polygenic traits
• Sex-linked traits

Chapter 10: Evolution and Natural Selection

• Evolution: Change in allele frequencies in a population over time
• Mechanisms of evolution: mutation, genetic drift, migration, natural selection
• Fitness: Reproductive success of an individual in a given environment
• Adaptation: Traits that improve an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in its environment.

Chapter 11: Ecosystems and Ecology

• Trophic levels, Food Web & chains, Energy Flow
• Competition, Niche, Predation, Symbiotic relationships (parasitism, mutualism, commensalism)
• Succession: The gradual change in species composition within an ecosystem over time