Biology Chapter 7

Chapter 7: Senses of the Nervous System

• General sense receptors: detect changes in the environment
• Types of sensation: pain, pressure, temperature, touch, and vibration
• Location: receptors located in the skin and other organs
• Intensity and duration: vary depending on the type of sensation

Pathways for Sensation

• Pain: transmitted to the brain through the spinal cord and thalamus
• Taste: involves the tongue and the brain's gustatory cortex
• Olfaction: involves the nose and the brain's olfactory cortex
• Hearing: involves the ear and the brain's auditory cortex
• Vision: involves the eye and the brain's visual cortex

Structures and Functions of the Eye

• Photoreceptors: rods and cones
• Optic disc: where the optic nerve leaves the eye
• Macula lutea: specialized area for central vision
• Fovea centralis: pit in the macula for sharp vision

Effects of Aging on the Senses

• Decreased sensitivity to light and sound
• Changes in the lens and retina of the eye
• Decreased sense of taste and smell

Senses of the Nervous System Diseases and Disorders

• Cataract: cloudy lens in the eye
• Conjunctivitis: inflammation of the conjunctiva
• Glaucoma: increased pressure in the eye
• Myopia: nearsightedness
• Hyperopia: farsightedness
• Astigmatism: irregular curvature of the cornea
• Otitis media: middle ear infection
• Presbyopia: age-related loss of near vision

Chapter 8: Endocrine System

• Glands and tissues: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, and others
• Hormones: chemical messengers produced by glands
• Functions: regulate growth, development, and metabolism
• Target tissues: where hormones exert their effects
• Autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine hormones: local, nearby, and distant targets

Hormone Secretion and Regulation

• Initiated by stimuli: nervous, hormonal, or environmental
• Up-regulation and down-regulation: change in receptor sensitivity
• Effects on hormone response: increased or decreased response

Hormone Elimination

• Liver and kidney metabolism
• Excretion: through urine, feces, or sweat

Endocrine System Diseases and Disorders

• Acromegaly: excess growth hormone
• Addison's disease: adrenal gland insufficiency
• Cushing's syndrome: excess cortisol
• Diabetes mellitus: high blood sugar
• Gigantism: excess growth hormone
• Grave's disease: hyperthyroidism
• Hashimoto's disease: hypothyroidism
• Myxedema: hypothyroidism

Chapter 9: Blood

• Components: plasma and formed elements
• Plasma: liquid portion of blood
• Formed elements: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
• Functions: transport oxygen, fight infection, and clot blood

Hemopoiesis

• Process of forming blood cells
• Three types: erythropoiesis, granulopoiesis, and thrombopoiesis

Hemoglobin and RBC Production

• Components: iron, protein, and heme
• Function: transport oxygen
• Nutritional requirements: iron, vitamin B12, and folate
• RBC lifespan: approximately 120 days

Hemostasis

• Process of stopping bleeding
• Three phases: vascular spasm, platelet plug, and coagulation
• Coagulation pathways: extrinsic, intrinsic, and common

Blood Clotting and Dissolution

• Clot formation: platelet plug and fibrin clot
• Clot dissolution: fibrinolysis

Blood Types and Transfusion

• ABO system: A, B, AB, and O
• Rh-factor: Rh-positive or Rh-negative
• Universal donor and recipient: O-negative and AB-positive

Blood Diseases and Disorders

• Leukemia: cancer of blood cells
• Polycythemia: excess red blood cells
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation: widespread clotting
• Embolus: blood clot that travels to the lungs
• Thrombus: blood clot that forms in a blood vessel
• Hemolytic anemia: premature destruction of red blood cells
• Hemorrhagic anemia: excessive bleeding
• Aplastic anemia: failure of blood cell production
• Iron-deficiency anemia: lack of iron
• Pernicious anemia: lack of vitamin B12
• Sickle cell disease: abnormal hemoglobin