Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of the citric acid cycle?
What is the primary role of the citric acid cycle?
- To break down glucose into pyruvate
- To transfer electrons to the electron transport chain
- To produce ATP and carbon dioxide through oxidation reactions (correct)
- To convert pyruvate into acetyl CoA
What happens to pyruvate under anaerobic conditions in animals?
What happens to pyruvate under anaerobic conditions in animals?
- It enters the electron transport chain
- It is reduced to lactate (correct)
- It transforms into acetyl CoA
- It is converted to citric acid
Which of the following compounds is produced during glycolysis?
Which of the following compounds is produced during glycolysis?
- NADH (correct)
- Lactate
- Acetyl CoA
- Citric acid
Where does the process of glycolysis occur?
Where does the process of glycolysis occur?
Which process generates the most ATP per glucose molecule under aerobic conditions?
Which process generates the most ATP per glucose molecule under aerobic conditions?
What is the primary function of proto-oncogenes?
What is the primary function of proto-oncogenes?
What can occur if tumor suppressor genes are mutated?
What can occur if tumor suppressor genes are mutated?
How does cancer typically develop in cells?
How does cancer typically develop in cells?
What is the role of growth factors in the cell cycle?
What is the role of growth factors in the cell cycle?
What is a critical factor in preventing cancer development during the cell cycle?
What is a critical factor in preventing cancer development during the cell cycle?
What is the primary function of a tissue in multicellular organisms?
What is the primary function of a tissue in multicellular organisms?
Which kingdom includes organisms that are photosynthetic and multicellular?
Which kingdom includes organisms that are photosynthetic and multicellular?
What type of organism is classified in the Protista Kingdom, according to their characteristics?
What type of organism is classified in the Protista Kingdom, according to their characteristics?
What is the correct format for writing a scientific name?
What is the correct format for writing a scientific name?
What defines an experimental variable in a scientific experiment?
What defines an experimental variable in a scientific experiment?
Why are model organisms important in scientific research?
Why are model organisms important in scientific research?
What does the concept of statistical significance help researchers determine?
What does the concept of statistical significance help researchers determine?
What is the main purpose of scientific peer review?
What is the main purpose of scientific peer review?
What is a characteristic feature of prokaryotic cells?
What is a characteristic feature of prokaryotic cells?
Which structure is present in some bacteria but not in all prokaryotic cells?
Which structure is present in some bacteria but not in all prokaryotic cells?
Which statement correctly describes the cell wall of Archaea?
Which statement correctly describes the cell wall of Archaea?
What is the primary function of ribosomes in prokaryotic cells?
What is the primary function of ribosomes in prokaryotic cells?
Which of the following describes the genetic material in prokaryotic cells?
Which of the following describes the genetic material in prokaryotic cells?
How do spirilla bacteria differ from spirochetes?
How do spirilla bacteria differ from spirochetes?
Which characteristic distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic ones?
Which characteristic distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic ones?
What component of the prokaryotic cell membrane contributes to its fluidity?
What component of the prokaryotic cell membrane contributes to its fluidity?
Which statement accurately describes the function of ribosomes in a cell?
Which statement accurately describes the function of ribosomes in a cell?
What is the primary role of the Golgi apparatus in a cell?
What is the primary role of the Golgi apparatus in a cell?
Which type of cytoskeletal component is primarily responsible for maintaining cell shape and aiding in organelle movement?
Which type of cytoskeletal component is primarily responsible for maintaining cell shape and aiding in organelle movement?
What characteristic is unique to mitochondria compared to other organelles?
What characteristic is unique to mitochondria compared to other organelles?
Which function is performed by lysosomes in a cell?
Which function is performed by lysosomes in a cell?
Which feature differentiates chloroplasts from mitochondria?
Which feature differentiates chloroplasts from mitochondria?
How do actin filaments contribute to cellular function?
How do actin filaments contribute to cellular function?
What is the primary function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
What is the primary function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Which statement accurately describes the composition of cilia and flagella?
Which statement accurately describes the composition of cilia and flagella?
According to the endosymbiotic theory, mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have originated from what type of organisms?
According to the endosymbiotic theory, mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have originated from what type of organisms?
Which process is specifically responsible for the uptake of liquids and small particles?
Which process is specifically responsible for the uptake of liquids and small particles?
Which protein in the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides resilience?
Which protein in the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides resilience?
Which type of junction connects cytoskeletal filaments of adjacent cells?
Which type of junction connects cytoskeletal filaments of adjacent cells?
In photosynthesis, what do plants primarily store solar energy as?
In photosynthesis, what do plants primarily store solar energy as?
According to the first law of thermodynamics, which statement is true?
According to the first law of thermodynamics, which statement is true?
What type of energy transformation occurs in an exergonic reaction?
What type of energy transformation occurs in an exergonic reaction?
What is the primary structure of ATP that stores energy?
What is the primary structure of ATP that stores energy?
What component of plant cell walls allows for flexibility and stretching?
What component of plant cell walls allows for flexibility and stretching?
What is the main role of fibronectin in the extracellular matrix?
What is the main role of fibronectin in the extracellular matrix?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
Which statement accurately describes entropy in biological systems?
Which statement accurately describes entropy in biological systems?
Which type of protein is responsible for facilitating the movement of solutes through the cell membrane?
Which type of protein is responsible for facilitating the movement of solutes through the cell membrane?
In receptor-mediated endocytosis, what is the role of the receptor proteins?
In receptor-mediated endocytosis, what is the role of the receptor proteins?
Which statement is true regarding hypotonic solutions?
Which statement is true regarding hypotonic solutions?
What type of energy is primarily generated from the breakdown of glucose?
What type of energy is primarily generated from the breakdown of glucose?
What characterizes facilitated diffusion?
What characterizes facilitated diffusion?
What is the term for the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane?
What is the term for the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane?
What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton in animal cells?
What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton in animal cells?
Which type of transport requires energy due to moving substances against their concentration gradient?
Which type of transport requires energy due to moving substances against their concentration gradient?
What do glycoproteins primarily assist with?
What do glycoproteins primarily assist with?
In what process do vesicles form to take substances into a cell?
In what process do vesicles form to take substances into a cell?
What happens to a cell placed in a hypertonic solution?
What happens to a cell placed in a hypertonic solution?
Which of the following is NOT a type of endocytosis?
Which of the following is NOT a type of endocytosis?
What occurs during enzymatic protein function?
What occurs during enzymatic protein function?
What characterizes a cell’s movement down a concentration gradient?
What characterizes a cell’s movement down a concentration gradient?
What is the significance of aquaporins in the cell membrane?
What is the significance of aquaporins in the cell membrane?
What is the primary role of peer review in scientific studies?
What is the primary role of peer review in scientific studies?
What defines a compound in chemistry?
What defines a compound in chemistry?
Which element is NOT considered part of CHNOPS?
Which element is NOT considered part of CHNOPS?
What is the process called when water is added to break down polymers?
What is the process called when water is added to break down polymers?
In terms of electron configurations, how many electrons can the first shell hold?
In terms of electron configurations, how many electrons can the first shell hold?
What type of bond is formed when atoms share electrons equally?
What type of bond is formed when atoms share electrons equally?
Which of the following describes a Prokaryotic cell?
Which of the following describes a Prokaryotic cell?
Which of the following statements about molecules and compounds is true?
Which of the following statements about molecules and compounds is true?
What is the basic energy storage form of glucose in plants?
What is the basic energy storage form of glucose in plants?
What occurs if a cell doubles in size regarding its surface area and volume?
What occurs if a cell doubles in size regarding its surface area and volume?
Which functional group is crucial for the consistent reactions of organic molecules?
Which functional group is crucial for the consistent reactions of organic molecules?
What does electronegativity refer to in a covalent bond?
What does electronegativity refer to in a covalent bond?
What describes valence shells in terms of their electron capacity?
What describes valence shells in terms of their electron capacity?
What is the importance of high heat capacity in water?
What is the importance of high heat capacity in water?
What happens to the lac repressor when lactose is absent?
What happens to the lac repressor when lactose is absent?
What is the function of the promoter in the lac operon?
What is the function of the promoter in the lac operon?
Which statement accurately describes the lac operon?
Which statement accurately describes the lac operon?
What role does RNA polymerase play in the lac operon?
What role does RNA polymerase play in the lac operon?
What happens when lactose binds to the lac repressor?
What happens when lactose binds to the lac repressor?
In what scenario is the lac operon not transcribed?
In what scenario is the lac operon not transcribed?
What distinguishes prokaryotic operons from eukaryotic genes?
What distinguishes prokaryotic operons from eukaryotic genes?
Which mechanism is primarily responsible for regulating gene expression in eukaryotes?
Which mechanism is primarily responsible for regulating gene expression in eukaryotes?
What is the end product of glycolysis?
What is the end product of glycolysis?
Which type of organisms are known for undergoing photosynthesis?
Which type of organisms are known for undergoing photosynthesis?
In which part of the plant does photosynthesis primarily occur?
In which part of the plant does photosynthesis primarily occur?
What is the main role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?
What is the main role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?
Which of the following is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
Which of the following is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
What is the primary function of the Calvin Cycle?
What is the primary function of the Calvin Cycle?
How many times does the Calvin Cycle need to occur to produce one glucose molecule?
How many times does the Calvin Cycle need to occur to produce one glucose molecule?
Which pigments primarily absorb light for photosynthesis?
Which pigments primarily absorb light for photosynthesis?
What occurs during the photolysis of water in photosynthesis?
What occurs during the photolysis of water in photosynthesis?
What is the primary role of caspases in apoptosis?
What is the primary role of caspases in apoptosis?
Which phase of the cell cycle is associated with DNA synthesis?
Which phase of the cell cycle is associated with DNA synthesis?
What is the purpose of DNA methylation in eukaryotic gene expression?
What is the purpose of DNA methylation in eukaryotic gene expression?
What is the role of cyclin in the regulation of the cell cycle?
What is the role of cyclin in the regulation of the cell cycle?
Which factor is crucial for the binding of RNA polymerase to a promoter?
Which factor is crucial for the binding of RNA polymerase to a promoter?
What modification occurs to primary mRNA before it becomes mature mRNA?
What modification occurs to primary mRNA before it becomes mature mRNA?
What happens during the G2 phase of interphase?
What happens during the G2 phase of interphase?
What effect does the length of the poly-A tail have on mRNA?
What effect does the length of the poly-A tail have on mRNA?
What is the outcome of mitosis?
What is the outcome of mitosis?
What type of mutation occurs in the germline that can affect future generations?
What type of mutation occurs in the germline that can affect future generations?
Which of the following is classified as an induced mutation?
Which of the following is classified as an induced mutation?
What is one potential outcome of a base substitution mutation?
What is one potential outcome of a base substitution mutation?
What kind of mutation results from inserting or deleting nucleotides in the DNA sequence?
What kind of mutation results from inserting or deleting nucleotides in the DNA sequence?
How do transposons affect gene expression?
How do transposons affect gene expression?
What type of chemical modification can affect a protein's activity after its synthesis?
What type of chemical modification can affect a protein's activity after its synthesis?
Which stage of mitosis is characterized by the alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate?
Which stage of mitosis is characterized by the alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate?
What is the primary outcome of meiosis II?
What is the primary outcome of meiosis II?
Which process utilizes ATP to drive an endergonic reaction?
Which process utilizes ATP to drive an endergonic reaction?
What role do enzymes play in chemical reactions?
What role do enzymes play in chemical reactions?
Which process ensures genetic variation during meiosis?
Which process ensures genetic variation during meiosis?
What is the purpose of the induced fit model in enzyme function?
What is the purpose of the induced fit model in enzyme function?
In human reproduction, what are the gametes formed in males called?
In human reproduction, what are the gametes formed in males called?
What can happen if the temperature exceeds an enzyme's optimal range?
What can happen if the temperature exceeds an enzyme's optimal range?
What best describes the function of proto-oncogenes?
What best describes the function of proto-oncogenes?
What effect do cofactors have on enzymes?
What effect do cofactors have on enzymes?
What is the expected chromosome number in a human zygote after fertilization?
What is the expected chromosome number in a human zygote after fertilization?
What happens to NADH during the NAD cycle?
What happens to NADH during the NAD cycle?
During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids become individual chromosomes?
During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids become individual chromosomes?
Which phase of cellular respiration occurs in the cytoplasm?
Which phase of cellular respiration occurs in the cytoplasm?
What happens during prophase I of meiosis?
What happens during prophase I of meiosis?
What is the primary function of enzymes in metabolic pathways?
What is the primary function of enzymes in metabolic pathways?
Which type of cells are produced by oogenesis?
Which type of cells are produced by oogenesis?
What is the composition of eukaryotic chromosomes?
What is the composition of eukaryotic chromosomes?
How does enzyme inhibition typically occur?
How does enzyme inhibition typically occur?
In which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
In which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
Which of the following describes oxidation?
Which of the following describes oxidation?
What is the main purpose of cellular respiration?
What is the main purpose of cellular respiration?
What occurs during telophase of mitosis?
What occurs during telophase of mitosis?
Which term refers to an individual's genetic makeup?
Which term refers to an individual's genetic makeup?
What is true about enzyme activity?
What is true about enzyme activity?
What process describes the random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes during meiosis?
What process describes the random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes during meiosis?
Which statement about ATP is correct?
Which statement about ATP is correct?
What process turns glucose into two molecules of pyruvate?
What process turns glucose into two molecules of pyruvate?
What is the primary function of meiosis in gamete formation?
What is the primary function of meiosis in gamete formation?
What unique characteristic is true about gametes in terms of allele representation?
What unique characteristic is true about gametes in terms of allele representation?
Which disorder is classified as an autosomal recessive disorder?
Which disorder is classified as an autosomal recessive disorder?
In the context of genetic inheritance, what is true about co-dominance?
In the context of genetic inheritance, what is true about co-dominance?
How does polygenic inheritance primarily affect phenotypes?
How does polygenic inheritance primarily affect phenotypes?
What condition arises when a person inherits alleles for blood type A and B?
What condition arises when a person inherits alleles for blood type A and B?
Which statement accurately describes incomplete dominance?
Which statement accurately describes incomplete dominance?
Which characteristic is true of a pedigree chart?
Which characteristic is true of a pedigree chart?
Which of the following is NOT a symptom of Cystic Fibrosis?
Which of the following is NOT a symptom of Cystic Fibrosis?
Which of the following statements is true regarding Tay-Sachs disease?
Which of the following statements is true regarding Tay-Sachs disease?
What is the function of helicase during DNA replication?
What is the function of helicase during DNA replication?
What signifies the end of the transcription process?
What signifies the end of the transcription process?
What is the role of DNA ligase in DNA replication?
What is the role of DNA ligase in DNA replication?
Which molecule serves as a template for the synthesis of mRNA during transcription?
Which molecule serves as a template for the synthesis of mRNA during transcription?
What is the first step that occurs during the initiation of transcription?
What is the first step that occurs during the initiation of transcription?
Which component is NOT involved in the translation process?
Which component is NOT involved in the translation process?
How does the antiparallel nature of DNA affect replication?
How does the antiparallel nature of DNA affect replication?
What type of molecule is formed after processing of pre-mRNA?
What type of molecule is formed after processing of pre-mRNA?
What is the significance of the genetic code being degenerate?
What is the significance of the genetic code being degenerate?
Which of the following describes the lagging strand during DNA replication?
Which of the following describes the lagging strand during DNA replication?
What triggers the termination phase of translation?
What triggers the termination phase of translation?
What role does the poly-A tail play in mRNA processing?
What role does the poly-A tail play in mRNA processing?
Which of the following is an accurate statement about gene expression control in eukaryotic cells?
Which of the following is an accurate statement about gene expression control in eukaryotic cells?
In prokaryotes like E. coli, what allows for rapid adjustment of gene expression based on environmental conditions?
In prokaryotes like E. coli, what allows for rapid adjustment of gene expression based on environmental conditions?
What characterizes the ability of cancer cells to avoid apoptosis?
What characterizes the ability of cancer cells to avoid apoptosis?
Which of the following best describes the function of the P53 gene?
Which of the following best describes the function of the P53 gene?
What type of mutation is primarily involved in the formation of a STOP codon?
What type of mutation is primarily involved in the formation of a STOP codon?
How do cancer cells typically affect surrounding normal tissues?
How do cancer cells typically affect surrounding normal tissues?
What is the result of a frameshift mutation?
What is the result of a frameshift mutation?
Which statement is true regarding germ-line mutations?
Which statement is true regarding germ-line mutations?
What is recombinant DNA technology primarily used for?
What is recombinant DNA technology primarily used for?
What is a common mechanism by which cancer cells move to other body parts?
What is a common mechanism by which cancer cells move to other body parts?
What is the significance of angiogenesis in cancer?
What is the significance of angiogenesis in cancer?
What characterizes polygenic traits?
What characterizes polygenic traits?
Which of the following statements is true regarding environmental influences on traits?
Which of the following statements is true regarding environmental influences on traits?
What was a major finding from the work of Frederick Griffith?
What was a major finding from the work of Frederick Griffith?
In Oswald Avery's experiment, what role did DNase play?
In Oswald Avery's experiment, what role did DNase play?
What conclusion did Hershey and Chase reach regarding DNA and proteins?
What conclusion did Hershey and Chase reach regarding DNA and proteins?
Which components make up a nucleotide in DNA?
Which components make up a nucleotide in DNA?
What holds the two strands of DNA together?
What holds the two strands of DNA together?
What does the antiparallel orientation of DNA strands refer to?
What does the antiparallel orientation of DNA strands refer to?
In DNA replication, what does it mean to copy one double helix into two identical double helices?
In DNA replication, what does it mean to copy one double helix into two identical double helices?
Which base pairs are connected by two hydrogen bonds?
Which base pairs are connected by two hydrogen bonds?
Which of the following is the primary role of the capsule in the S strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae?
Which of the following is the primary role of the capsule in the S strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae?
What type of bond connects the sugar-phosphate backbone in DNA?
What type of bond connects the sugar-phosphate backbone in DNA?
Which of the following pairs of nitrogenous bases are considered purines?
Which of the following pairs of nitrogenous bases are considered purines?
Which statement is true about the genetic role of proteins and DNA based on early 20th-century research?
Which statement is true about the genetic role of proteins and DNA based on early 20th-century research?
Flashcards
Cell
Cell
The basic unit of life.
Tissue
Tissue
Group of similar cells performing a specific function.
Organ
Organ
Structures formed by several tissues working together for a function.
Scientific Name
Scientific Name
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Control Group
Control Group
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Experimental Variable
Experimental Variable
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Hypothesis
Hypothesis
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Model Organism
Model Organism
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Prokaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cell
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Bacterial cell wall
Bacterial cell wall
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Eukaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
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Nucleoid region
Nucleoid region
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Cell wall (eukaryotic)
Cell wall (eukaryotic)
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Capsule (bacteria)
Capsule (bacteria)
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Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane
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Ribosome
Ribosome
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Lignin
Lignin
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Fungal Cell Walls
Fungal Cell Walls
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Chromatin
Chromatin
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER)
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Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus
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Lysosomes
Lysosomes
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Vacuoles
Vacuoles
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Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts
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Chi-Square Test
Chi-Square Test
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Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of Freedom
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CHNOPS
CHNOPS
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Atom
Atom
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Protons
Protons
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Neutrons
Neutrons
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Electrons
Electrons
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Electron Shells
Electron Shells
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Molecule
Molecule
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Compound
Compound
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Ionic Bond
Ionic Bond
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Covalent Bond
Covalent Bond
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Polar Covalent Bond
Polar Covalent Bond
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Monosaccharide
Monosaccharide
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Polymer
Polymer
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Glycolysis
Glycolysis
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Pyruvate Destination
Pyruvate Destination
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Krebs Cycle
Krebs Cycle
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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
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Chemiosmosis
Chemiosmosis
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Phospholipid bilayer
Phospholipid bilayer
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Peripheral proteins
Peripheral proteins
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Integral proteins
Integral proteins
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Glycoproteins
Glycoproteins
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Channel proteins
Channel proteins
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Carrier proteins
Carrier proteins
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Receptor proteins
Receptor proteins
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Concentration gradient
Concentration gradient
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Diffusion
Diffusion
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Osmosis
Osmosis
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Isotonic solution
Isotonic solution
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Hypotonic solution
Hypotonic solution
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Hypertonic solution
Hypertonic solution
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Active transport
Active transport
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Proto-oncogenes
Proto-oncogenes
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Tumor Suppressor Genes
Tumor Suppressor Genes
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Oncogene
Oncogene
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How can a mutated tumor suppressor gene lead to cancer?
How can a mutated tumor suppressor gene lead to cancer?
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What is the role of growth factors in the cell cycle?
What is the role of growth factors in the cell cycle?
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Electron Transport Chain
Electron Transport Chain
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
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Autotrophs
Autotrophs
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Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs
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Oxidation
Oxidation
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Reduction
Reduction
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Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll
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Stomata
Stomata
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Thylakoid
Thylakoid
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Light Reactions
Light Reactions
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Calvin Cycle
Calvin Cycle
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Gamete Formation
Gamete Formation
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Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous Chromosomes
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Allele
Allele
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Genotype
Genotype
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Phenotype
Phenotype
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Autosomal Recessive Disorder
Autosomal Recessive Disorder
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Autosomal Dominant Disorder
Autosomal Dominant Disorder
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Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete Dominance
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Codominance
Codominance
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Polygenic Inheritance
Polygenic Inheritance
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Operon
Operon
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Promoter
Promoter
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Operator
Operator
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Repressor Protein
Repressor Protein
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Inducible Operon
Inducible Operon
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Lac Operon
Lac Operon
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Repressible Operon
Repressible Operon
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Transcription Unit or Operon
Transcription Unit or Operon
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Coupled Reactions
Coupled Reactions
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ATP Phosphorylation
ATP Phosphorylation
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Metabolic Pathways
Metabolic Pathways
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What are enzymes?
What are enzymes?
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Energy of Activation
Energy of Activation
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How do enzymes lower activation energy?
How do enzymes lower activation energy?
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Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
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Active site
Active site
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Induced Fit Model
Induced Fit Model
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Factors affecting enzyme speed
Factors affecting enzyme speed
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Temperature and pH on enzyme activity
Temperature and pH on enzyme activity
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Simple Enzyme Inhibition
Simple Enzyme Inhibition
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Complex Enzyme Inhibition
Complex Enzyme Inhibition
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Enzyme Cofactors
Enzyme Cofactors
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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
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Carcinogenesis
Carcinogenesis
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Diploid (2n)
Diploid (2n)
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Haploid (1n)
Haploid (1n)
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Sister chromatids
Sister chromatids
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Centromere
Centromere
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Spindle fibers
Spindle fibers
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Prophase
Prophase
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Metaphase
Metaphase
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Anaphase
Anaphase
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Telophase
Telophase
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Meiosis I
Meiosis I
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Meiosis II
Meiosis II
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Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
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Collagen in ECM
Collagen in ECM
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Elastin in ECM
Elastin in ECM
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Fibronectin in ECM
Fibronectin in ECM
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Proteoglycans in ECM
Proteoglycans in ECM
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Adhesion Junctions
Adhesion Junctions
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Tight Junctions
Tight Junctions
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Gap Junctions
Gap Junctions
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Cellulose in Plant Wall
Cellulose in Plant Wall
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Pectins in Plant Wall
Pectins in Plant Wall
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Plasmodesmata in Plants
Plasmodesmata in Plants
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Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy
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Potential Energy
Potential Energy
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Chemical Energy
Chemical Energy
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Mechanical Energy
Mechanical Energy
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1st Law of Thermodynamics
1st Law of Thermodynamics
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2nd Law of Thermodynamics
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
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Entropy in Cells
Entropy in Cells
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Catabolism
Catabolism
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Anabolism
Anabolism
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Exergonic Reactions
Exergonic Reactions
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Endergonic Reactions
Endergonic Reactions
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ATP: Energy for Cells
ATP: Energy for Cells
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Function of ATP
Function of ATP
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Gene Control Levels
Gene Control Levels
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Pre-Transcriptional Control
Pre-Transcriptional Control
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Transcriptional Control
Transcriptional Control
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Post-Transcriptional Control
Post-Transcriptional Control
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Translational Control
Translational Control
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Polygenic Trait
Polygenic Trait
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Post-Translational Control
Post-Translational Control
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Environmental Influence on Traits
Environmental Influence on Traits
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What is a Gene Mutation?
What is a Gene Mutation?
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What is DNA?
What is DNA?
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Germ-line Mutations
Germ-line Mutations
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Somatic Mutations
Somatic Mutations
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Griffith's Experiment (1931)
Griffith's Experiment (1931)
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Avery's Experiment (1944)
Avery's Experiment (1944)
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Mutagens
Mutagens
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Hershey-Chase Experiment
Hershey-Chase Experiment
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What are nucleotides?
What are nucleotides?
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DNA Bases
DNA Bases
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DNA Double Helix
DNA Double Helix
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Base Pairing Rules
Base Pairing Rules
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Antiparallel DNA Strands
Antiparallel DNA Strands
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DNA Replication
DNA Replication
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What is the purpose of DNA replication?
What is the purpose of DNA replication?
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What are the key features of DNA replication?
What are the key features of DNA replication?
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What are the main stages of DNA replication?
What are the main stages of DNA replication?
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Semiconservative replication
Semiconservative replication
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Helicase
Helicase
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DNA Polymerase
DNA Polymerase
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Leading strand
Leading strand
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Lagging strand
Lagging strand
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Okazaki fragments
Okazaki fragments
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DNA ligase
DNA ligase
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Gene expression
Gene expression
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Transcription
Transcription
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Translation
Translation
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RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase
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Codon
Codon
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Anticodon
Anticodon
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PKU
PKU
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Albinism
Albinism
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Carcinogen
Carcinogen
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Point mutation
Point mutation
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Frameshift mutation
Frameshift mutation
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Biotechnology
Biotechnology
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Study Notes
Cell Biology
- Cells are the basic units of life. Tissues are groups of similar cells with a specific function. Organs are formed from tissues, and organ systems are formed from organs.
- The plant kingdom comprises multicellular, photosynthetic organisms. Fungi include molds and mushrooms. The animal kingdom comprises multicellular organisms that ingest and process food.
- Classification follows a hierarchy: Domain → Supergroup → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Genus → Species.
- Systematics helps biologists understand the diversity of life. Examples include Amoeba (Protista, unicellular, eukaryotic, no fixed shape), Mushroom (Fungi, heterotrophic, non-mobile), Fern (Plantae, multicellular, photosynthetic), and Lion (Animalia, multicellular, carnivorous).
Classification and Scientific Names
- Taxonomists use binomial nomenclature (Genus + species epithet) to name species. Examples include Homo sapiens, Pisum sativum, and Felis domesticus.
- Scientific names are capitalized for Genus and italicized .
Hypothesis and Experimental Design
- A hypothesis proposes a relationship between a variable (e.g., fertilizer) and a response variable (e.g., potato prices).
- Control groups are maintained without the experimental variable.
- Experimental groups receive the variable being tested (ex: fertilizer example).
- Responding variable is influenced and altered.
Model Organisms
- Model organisms are alternative to human testing. They are important in research to understand how treatments affect humans, without harming humans.
Statistical Significance
- Statistical significance helps determine whether results of an experiment are reliable.
Scientific Publication
- Peer review is important to challenge and ensure the reliability of scientific studies.
Chi-Square Tests
- Chi-square tests are used to determine the significance of experimental results.
Basic Chemistry
- Key elements include oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
- Atoms consist of protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative), with electrons orbiting the nucleus.
- The periodic table organizes elements based on atomic number and properties.
- Groups are vertical columns and periods are horizontal rows.
- Electron shells/orbitals determine electron arrangement.
- Electron shells fill in a distinct order with distinct atomic configurations & characteristics of elements.
Molecules and Compounds
- Molecules are formed by two or more atoms. Compounds involve two or more different elements combined. Not all molecules are compounds, but every compound is a molecule.
- An example of chemical formula is CHNOPS (Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulphur).
Bonding
- Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred, forming ions with opposite charges.
- Covalent bonding involves sharing electrons to achieve stable electron configurations.
- Nonpolar covalent bonds share electrons equally, while polar covalent bonds share unequally. Electronegativity measures the attraction for electrons in a covalent bond.
Water
- Water has a high heat capacity, meaning its temperature changes slowly, which is important for regulating temperature in organisms.
- A calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius.
Organic Molecules
- Organic molecules always contain carbon and hydrogen.
- Functional groups are specific combinations of atoms that consistently react in a predictable manner.
- Macromolecules are large molecules formed by combining monomers (smaller units) to form polymers.
- Reactions involving monomers in polymers are typically dehydration reactions. Polymers can be broken down by hydrolysis reaction.
- Common organic molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, each serving specific functions within living organisms.
- Monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose), disaccharides (two monosaccharides like sucrose), and polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides like starch and glycogen) are examples of carbohydrates, providing energy and structural support.
- Starch is plant energy storage; glycogen is animal energy storage.
Cells
- Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
- The cell theory postulates that all organisms are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function, and new cells arise from pre-existing cells.
- Small cell size is beneficial for nutrient absorption and waste removal, although volume increases faster than surface area so cells of larger dimensions (volume) will require more adaptations in surface area.
Prokaryotic Cells
- Prokaryotic cells are small and come in various shapes: rod-shaped (bacilli), spherical (cocci), spiral (spirilla/spirochetes).
- Cell walls with peptidoglycan, capsules (external layer for protection), flagella for movement, fimbriae for attachment, nucleoid (region with DNA), and ribosomes are all prokaryotic cell structures.
Eukaryotic Cells: General Structure and Organelles
- Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
- Cell walls are found in some eukaryotic cells, e.g., plant cell walls containing cellulose, fungi's containing chitin.
- The nucleus contains chromatin (DNA + protein). Ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA as a template.
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and the cytoskeleton are key eukaryotic organelles each with distinct functions.
- The endomembrane system consists of the ER, Golgi, lysosomes, and vacuoles that work in a regulated fashion to produce, process, modify, and distribute substances within the cell.
Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles (Detailed)
- Rough ER is associated with protein synthesis; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids.
- Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.
- Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes.
- Vacuoles store water, salts, or waste products.
- Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis.
- Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, and have their own DNA.
- The cytoskeleton consists of actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, maintaining cell shape, facilitating movement, supporting the cell, and facilitating movement within the cell. Centrioles are found in animal cells.
- Cilia and flagella are involved in cell movement.
Membrane Structure and Function
- Plasma membranes are composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
- Proteins span the membrane. The hydrophobic tails of lipids face inwards while the hydrophillic heads face outwards. Proteins that are embedded within the membrane are considered integral proteins. Peripheral proteins are usually associated with one side of the membrane while integral proteins usually span the entire membrane due to the hydrophobic amino acid side chains within the protein.
- Glycolipids and glycoproteins act as cell markers.
- Channel proteins facilitate passage of substances through the membrane.
- Carrier proteins facilitate passage of substances across the membrane via binding and conformational changes by combining with the substance.
- Receptor proteins initiate cellular responses when specific molecules bind to them.
- Enzymatic proteins catalyze reactions.
Membrane Transport
- Diffusion moves substances down their concentration gradients. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
- Isotonic solutions have equal solute concentrations inside and outside the cell. Hypotonic solutions have lower solute concentrations outside the cell. Hypertonic solutions have higher solute concentrations outside the cell.
- Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradients using energy (ATP).
- Passive transport, like diffusion and facilitated diffusion, does not require energy.
- Bulk transport moves large substances using vesicles (endocytosis and exocytosis).
Cell Surfaces
- Extracellular matrix (ECM) provides support and communication.
- Junctions (tight, gap, adhesion junctions) connect cells.
- Plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose, with plasmodesmata connecting adjacent cells.
Energy
- Energy is the ability to do work. The first and second laws of thermodynamics govern energy transformations in ecosystems.
- Cells use energy for growth, metabolism, response, and reproduction.
Cellular Respiration
- Cellular respiration releases energy from molecules (such as glucose) and uses it to generate ATP.
- The process involves glycolysis, the preparatory reaction, the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and the electron transport chain, generating 32-38 ATP molecules from one glucose molecule.
Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis converts solar energy into chemical energy (carbohydrates). Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria are examples of photosynthetic organisms (autotrophs).
- Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts with two primary stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle.
- Chlorophyll absorbs light energy.
Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and Apoptosis
- A cell cycle includes stages of G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), and G2 (preparation). Then M (mitosis which includes the segregation of chromosomes into daughter cell) and then cytokinesis (separation of the cytoplasm). Mitosis and Cytokinesis result in two daughter cells from the one original cell. Mitotic division is a critical aspect for human reproduction and general growth and development. Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) is essential for removing unwanted or damaged cells (ex: tail of a tadpole).
- Specific checkpoints control the cycle.
- Growth factors trigger the cell cycle.
Cancer
- Cancer development involves mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, leading to uncontrolled cell division.
- Carcinogens may be environmental factors such as radiation, chemicals, or viruses that contribute to the development of cancer.
- Cancer cells lose the normal controls associated with cell division to proliferate with other cells throughout the system.
DNA Structure and Replication
- DNA is a double helix composed of nucleotides.
- DNA replication is semiconservative, producing two identical DNA molecules from one original molecule. Leading and lagging strands are used.
Gene Expression and Control
- Gene expression involves transcription (DNA → mRNA) and translation (mRNA → protein).
- Control mechanisms regulate gene expression in prokaryotes (e.g., operons) and eukaryotes (e.g., transcription factors, DNA methylation). Specific sequences of DNA regulate and modify expression within a gene.
Mutations
- Mutations are changes in DNA sequences.
- Point mutations involve changes in a single nucleotide. Frameshift mutations involve insertions or deletions of nucleotides.
- Mutations can lead to altered traits and play a role in cancer development.
Biotechnology
- Biotechnology uses biological systems for applications like gene cloning, GMO production, and gene therapy. Genetic engineering alters genomes to enhance traits, improve productions, or for therapy applications.
- Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA segments from different sources to create rDNA molecules for cloning / gene therapy / genetic engineering. Cloning produces identical copies.
Inheritance
- Inheritance patterns include single-trait inheritance, multiple allele inheritance, codominance, polygenic inheritance, and environmental influences. Mendelian genetics explains patterns of inheritance in offspring. Genetic traits are governed by alleles present in the parents.
Meiosis
- Meiosis is cell division that produces haploid gametes (sex cells). Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division to ensure genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment.
Human Life Cycle
- Humans involve meiosis for reproducing. Haploid gametes fuse to form diploid zygotes, which develop by mitosis into a multicellular fetus and eventually an individual.
Human Genetic Disorders
- Genetic disorders can be caused by autosomal recessive (e.g., cystic fibrosis) or autosomal dominant (e.g., Huntington's disease) alleles, as well as incomplete dominance and multiple allele inheritance / polygenic inheritance.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the citric acid cycle, glycolysis, and cancer biology in this chapter quiz. Explore the important roles of genes and growth factors in cell processes, and understand key biological concepts and terms related to multicellular organisms and scientific classification.
