Lecture 1 / - Molecular Biology
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following best defines the relationship between cells and other components of life?

  • Cells are exclusively composed of organic compounds, forming simple structures.
  • Cells are the largest structural units found only in multicellular organisms.
  • Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. (correct)
  • Cells are formed from non-living matter, undergoing a spontaneous process.

    • What is a defining characteristic of a eukaryotic cell, as opposed to a prokaryotic one?

  • Presence of a cell wall composed primarily of peptidoglycans.
  • Presence of a nucleoid region with free-floating genetic material.
  • Presence of membrane-bound organelles including the nucleus. (correct)
  • Presence of plasmids, facilitating rapid cell replication.

    • What is not a component typically found in a prokaryotic cell?

  • Plasmids containing non-essential DNA.
  • Cytosol, the fluid component of the cell.
  • Endoplasmic reticulum responsible for protein folding. (correct)
  • Ribosomes, for protein synthesis.

    • How do inorganic compounds primarily relate to life, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>They mainly constitute the non-living parts of nature.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is primarily responsible for passing genetic information to daughter cells during cell division?

    <p>The genetic information contained within the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the unique bonding characteristic of carbon that allows for the formation of diverse organic molecules?

    <p>Carbon's capacity to establish strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a major family of small organic molecules found in cells?

    <p>Polysaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does lengthening the carbon chain of a carbohydrate typically have on its solubility in water?

    <p>It decreases the solubility because larger molecules have fewer polar groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what form do plants primarily store carbohydrates for energy?

    <p>Starch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is characteristic of unsaturated fatty acids?

    <p>They can have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the length of the hydrocarbon chain in a fatty acid affect its fluidity?

    <p>The shorter the chain, the more fluid the fatty acid becomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why lipids are insoluble in water?

    <p>They have a low capacity to polarize in water, making them hydrophobic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a typical component of lipids?

    <p>Polysaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the trans cisterna of the Golgi apparatus directly facing?

    <p>The cell membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a typical function of the Golgi apparatus?

    <p>Endocytosis of cellular waste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does the maturation of precursor forms of proteins through controlled proteolysis take place?

    <p>Golgi apparatus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The number and location of lysosomes can vary even within cells of the same tissue, which of the following is an example of the lysosome diameter found in hepatocytes and neurons?

    <p>0.5 to 1 μm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary structural characteristic of lysosomes?

    <p>Spherical or oval vesicles surrounded by a <em>single</em> membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Proteins produced by free ribosomes are most likely to function in which cellular location?

    <p>The cytosol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic distinguishes eukaryotic ribosomes from prokaryotic ribosomes, as described in the text?

    <p>Their sedimentation coefficient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a primary function of the mitochondrial cristae?

    <p>To increase the surface area for ATP production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical number of mitochondria found in a human epidermal cell, according to the text?

    <p>2 to 6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of mitochondrial nucleoids?

    <p>To store copies of the mitochondrial DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the process by which mitochondria are created?

    <p>By division of existing mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The movement of ATP from the mitochondria to the rest of the cell is facilitated by which property of mitochondria?

    <p>Their ability to move within the cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structures are located within the mitochondrial matrix, according to the text?

    <p>mtDNA, ribosomes, and enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the characteristics of the outer mitochondrial membrane?

    <p>Smooth and permeable to most substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which direction do the cis cisternae of the Golgi apparatus face?

    <p>Toward the nucleus or endoplasmic reticulum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a primary function of enzymes within peroxisomes?

    <p>Replication of the peroxisome's own DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the initial source for the formation of de novo peroxisomes?

    <p>Detachment of vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the division of an existing peroxisome, what physical transformation precedes the separation into two daughter structures?

    <p>The peroxisome taking the form of a tube</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of catalase or peroxidases in the peroxisome?

    <p>To break down hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cellular component is primarily responsible for organizing microtubules and is found near the cell nucleus and Golgi apparatus?

    <p>Centrosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of a proplastid in plant cells?

    <p>Precursor to all other forms of plastids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a function performed by peroxisomes that is crucial for nerve cell myelination?

    <p>Synthesis of plasmalogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do plant cells have that animal cells do not?

    <p>Cell wall and plastids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a primary function of the vacuole in a plant cell?

    <p>Synthesizing proteins for cellular use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the endosymbiotic theory, what evidence suggests that mitochondria may have originated from prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Mitochondria contain circular DNA similar to bacterial DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'metabolism' refer to in the context of living cells?

    <p>The entirety of all biochemical reactions occurring in cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes an anabolic pathway?

    <p>It involves the synthesis of complex molecules from simple ones and requires energy input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the content, what is the predominant component of cell sap?

    <p>Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the energy dynamics of anabolic reactions?

    <p>Energy input is required and the products have more stored energy than the substrates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the provided information on the endosymbiotic theory, which amino acid is the first one in the proteins produced by the mitochondria?

    <p>N-formylmethionine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do mitochondria and chloroplasts form according to endosymbiotic theory?

    <p>They reproduce by dividing, similar to bacteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of leucoplast is primarily responsible for the storage of fats in plant cells?

    <p>Lipidoplasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the primary composition of the secondary cell wall in plants?

    <p>Cellulose and lignin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pigment is primarily found in chromoplasts and is significant for coloration in fruits and flowers?

    <p>Carotenoids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The structure surrounding the vacuole, known for regulating the flow of materials in and out, is termed what?

    <p>Tonoplast</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is NOT attributed to the plant cell wall?

    <p>Facilitating cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary function of lipids in biological membranes?

    <p>Provide structural rigidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the cytoplasm is primarily responsible for moving organelles and substances within the cell?

    <p>Cytoplasmic streaming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following functions does not pertain to the role of the cell membrane?

    <p>Store energy in fat reserves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In complex lipids, what is typically the role of phosphoric acid?

    <p>Creates phospholipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of cytoplasm allows it to be described as a colloidal solution?

    <p>It has particles that do not settle under gravity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the internal cell environment?

    <p>It consists of cytoplasm containing organelles and cytosol.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which example illustrates the protective function of fat reserves in animals?

    <p>Insulating the body against temperature fluctuations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cytoplasmic movement involves flow around two vacuoles in opposite directions?

    <p>Fountaining</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of intermediate filaments in a cell?

    <p>Provide resistance to mechanical damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which family of protein filaments is responsible for forming cilia and flagella?

    <p>Microtubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of filament is primarily made of actin?

    <p>Actin filaments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of microtubules in non-dividing cells?

    <p>They group together in the centrosome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein is a key component of microtubules?

    <p>Tubulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following functions is NOT associated with the cytoskeleton?

    <p>Energy production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the diameter of microtubules?

    <p>25 nm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature characterizes actin filaments in muscle cells?

    <p>They play a role in muscle contraction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one specific byproduct generated from β-oxidation reactions of fatty acids in peroxisomes?

    <p>Hydrogen peroxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is NOT a function of peroxisomes?

    <p>Primary energy production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the division of pre-existing peroxisomes, what physical transformation occurs?

    <p>Formation of a tightening ring around a tube</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cellular structure is primarily responsible for the dual arrangement of microtubules during cell division?

    <p>Centrosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of peroxins in peroxisome formation?

    <p>Recruitment of enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a proplastid from other plastids?

    <p>It is the precursor to all plastid forms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the key differences between the formation of new peroxisomes and the division of pre-existing ones?

    <p>De novo formation requires vesicle detachment from organelles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of plant cells is considered a nonplasmic component?

    <p>Cell wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a reaction catalyzed by enzymes within peroxisomes?

    <p>Hydrogen peroxide breakdown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In plant cells, which organelle is crucial for the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol independent of the endoplasmic reticulum?

    <p>Peroxisomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus in the maturation of precursor forms of proteins?

    <p>Controlled proteolysis, where precursor forms mature into functional proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a cellular process that is NOT directly impacted by the Golgi apparatus?

    <p>Breakdown of glucose for energy production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structural characteristic of lysosomes distinguishes them from other cellular organelles?

    <p>Their highly acidic internal environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the process of insulin maturation as illustrated in the content?

    <p>Preproinsulin is first converted to proinsulin, which is then cleaved to produce insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the content, which of the following is NOT a component that the Golgi apparatus receives from the cell membrane?

    <p>Proteins intended for secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a function performed by the Golgi apparatus that is not a post-translational modification of proteins or lipids?

    <p>Recycling of the cell membrane after endocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the content, which of the following would be least likely to be found in a macrophage lysosome?

    <p>Enzymes for generating ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best summarizes the trans cisternae of the Golgi apparatus, as described in the content?

    <p>They face the cell membrane where vesicles with finished products are released</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the size information presented in the text, which of the following is the most likely diameter of a lysosome found in a neuron?

    <p>0.5 μm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about the Golgi apparatus, as presented in the text?

    <p>It functions in modifying and packaging proteins and lipids for export</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cell Composition and Structure

    • The lecturer is Dr. Michelle Kuzma
    • Material adapted from Dr. Danuta Mielżyńska-Švach
    • The study is about molecular biology 2024/2025
    • Focuses on cell composition and structure

    Areas of Cell Study

    • Cytology
    • Cytochemistry
    • Cytopathology
    • Cytophysiology
    • Cytogenetics

    The Cell

    • Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all organisms.
    • Cells are formed by the division of other cells (cell division).
    • Cells contain genetic information passed to daughter cells during division.
    • All cells are made of the same chemical compounds.
    • All metabolic processes essential to life occur within cells.

    Types of Cells

    • Prokaryotic Cells:
      • Bacterial Cell Anatomy
      • Pilus
      • Capsule
      • Cell Wall
      • Plasma Membrane
      • Nucleoid (DNA)
      • Ribosomes
      • Plasmid
      • Flagella
    • Eukaryotic Cells:
      • More complex structure
      • Microtubules
      • Centrosome
      • Pair of centrioles
      • Chromatin (DNA)
      • Nuclear pore
      • Nuclear envelope
      • Nucleolus
      • Extracellular matrix
      • Vesicles
      • Lysosomes
      • Peroxisomes
      • Ribosomes
      • Golgi apparatus
      • Intermediate filaments
      • Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth, rough)
      • Plasma membrane
      • Nucleus
      • Actin filaments
      • Mitochondria
      • Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth, rough)

    Types of Cells (Classification)

    • Bacteria
    • Archaea
    • Eukaryota (e.g., animals, plants, fungi, protists)
      • Subdivisions within these groups

    Eukaryotic Organisms

    • Single-celled: Protozoa, some algae, and some fungi.
    • Multi-celled: Plants, fungi, and animals.

    Prokaryotic Cell Components

    • Cell surface:
      • Cell membrane
      • Cell wall (mucus)
      • Capsule (mucus)
      • Flagella, cilia
      • Pili, fimbriae
    • Cell Interior:
      • Cytosol
      • Nucleoid (equivalent of cell nucleus)
      • Ribosomes
      • Plasmids

    Eukaryotic Animal Cell

    • Cytoplasm (cytoplasmic matrix)
    • Cytoskeleton
    • Nucleus
    • Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth & rough)
    • Mitochondria
    • Golgi apparatus
    • Lysosomes
    • Peroxisomes

    Cell Components

    • All organisms are composed of inorganic and organic chemicals.
    • Inorganic compounds primarily make up the non-living parts of nature.
    • Organic compounds are mostly found in living organisms or their remains.

    Inorganic Components

    • Chemical elements
      • Macroelements (at least 0.01% of cell mass, e.g., 0.1 mg/1g)
      • Microelements (between 0.01 - 0.00001% of cell mass, e.g., 0.1 mg/1g to 0.1 µg/g)
      • Trace elements (µg/g range in cells, intake required is on the scale of mg/g)
      • Ultratrace elements (µg/g range, require µg/g of dietary intake)
    • Water (~70%)

    Chemical Elements

    • Macroelements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Sulphur (S), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg)
    • Microelements: Iron (Fe), Silicon (Si), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Fluorine (F), Iodine (I), Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo), Zinc (Zn)
    • Ultraelements: Radium (Ra), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au)

    Water

    • The main component (~70 - 80%) of living cells.
    • Essential for body function.
    • Solvent for many chemical compounds.
    • Crucial environment for all reactions.
    • Substrate and product of many chemical reactions.
    • Biological functions depend on its structure & properties.

    Water Molecule Structure

    • One oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.
    • Polar due to uneven charge distribution.
    • Hydrogen bonds exist between oxygen and hydrogen.

    Carbon Atom Structure

    • Nucleus contains 6 protons, 6 neutrons.
    • Two electron shells (K shell with 2, L shell with 4 electrons).
    • Four valence electrons and four vacancies.

    Carbon Atom Unique Role

    • Forms strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms to form:
      • Chains
      • Branched structures
      • Rings
    • Basis of organic compounds

    Organic Components

    • Cells contain four major families of small organic molecules (containing carbon and hydrogen):
      • Saccharides
      • Fatty acids
      • Amino acids
      • Nucleotides
    • These are usually found free in the cytosol.
    • Subunits (monomers) form larger macromolecules (polymers).

    Organic Component Hierarchy

    • Small organic building blocks (sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides).
    • Larger organic molecules (polysaccharides, fats/membrane lipids, proteins, nucleic acids).

    Carbohydrates

    • Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
    • Categorized by the number of sugar molecules:
      • Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose)
      • Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose)
      • Oligosaccharides (raffinose)
      • Polysaccharides (cellulose, starch).
    • Solubility decreases with increasing carbon chain length.

    Carbohydrate Function

    • Energy storage/production: Glycogen in animals, starch in plants.
    • Structure: Cellulose (plant cell walls), chitin (fungal cell walls), ribose & deoxyribose in DNA & RNA.
    • Modifiers of proteins
    • Transport: Glucose in animals & humans, sucrose in plants

    Fatty Acids

    • Usually contain an even number of carbon atoms (14 to 24).
    • Carboxyl group (acid) connected to a hydrocarbon chain (fat).
    • Shorter chains are more fluid.
    • Saturated fatty acids have only single bonds.
    • Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.

    Lipids

    • Esters of fatty acids bonded to alcohols.
    • Examples include glycerol, sphingosine, and higher monohydric alcohols.
    • Insoluble in water due to low polarization.

    Types of Lipids

    • Simple lipids: Fats and oils (triglycerides), Waxes (esters with non-glycerol alcohols)
    • Complex lipids:
      • Phosphoric acid - phospholipids
      • Carbohydrate - glycolipids

    Lipid Functions

    • Structural: Building blocks of biological membranes, like phospholipid bilayers.
    • Energy storage: In animals (subcutaneous tissue, hibernators), and plants (seeds, fruits, roots).
    • Signaling: Steroid hormones, vitamins A and D.
    • Protection: Protects eyes, kidneys, and abdominal organs in animals, and plants from water loss. Also protects marine mammals from cold.

    Cell Composition (Summary)

    • Water (~70%)
    • Organic molecules (~30%)
      • Proteins (~15%)
      • Polysaccharides (~2%)
      • Other organic molecules (~13%)

    Cell Structure

    • The internal environment of the cell is separated from the external environment by a cell membrane (plasma membrane), or sometimes an additional cell wall (e.g., in bacteria and plant cells).
    • The internal environment is called the cytoplasm.
    • Organelles (little organs) are membrane-bound.
    • Non-membrane-bound organelles.

    Cell Structure: Cell Membrane

    • Surrounds all cells and organelles.
    • Composed of lipids, proteins, and sugar.
    • Functions:
      • Protection
      • Reaction to stimuli (chemical, thermal, mechanical)
      • Enzymatic catalysis (of metabolic reactions)
      • Transport regulation (substances in and out of the cell)
      • Maintaining osmotic pressure balance between inside and outside of the cell

    Cell Structure: Cytoplasm

    • Colloidal solution filling the cell and giving it shape.
    • Environment for suspended organelles.
    • Site of metabolic reactions
    • Facilitates Movement of organelles and cell substance.
    • Has states of semi-liquid and semi-solid.

    Cell Structure: Cytoplasm cont.

    • Movement of cytoplasm: Rotationally (around usually centrally located vacuole), circulating (between organelle), pulsating (in different directions), fountaining (around 2 vacuoles in opposite directions).

    Cell Structure: Cytoskeleton

    • System of filaments that allows cells to rearrange internal components during growth/division.
    • Three families of protein filaments:
      • Intermediate filaments (8-10 nm diameter)
      • Microtubules (25 nm diameter)
      • Actin filaments (7 nm diameter)

    Cell Structure: Cytoskeleton (cont.)

    • Intermediate filaments: Provide resistance to mechanical damage, help maintain cell shape, build the nuclear lamina.
    • Microtubules: Build centrioles and mitotic spindle, responsible for transport, form cilia and flagella. (in non-dividing cells, group into centrosomes).
    • Actin filaments: Provide mechanical support for organelles, involved in cytoplasm movement, allow cell creeping and shape change, participate in muscle contraction.

    Cell Organelles (Eukaryotic Animal)

    • Mitochondrion
    • Peroxisome
    • Nuclear envelope
    • Golgi apparatus
    • Transport vesicle
    • Cytosol
    • Endoplasmic reticulum
    • Plasma membrane

    Cellular Components: Organelles

    • Double Membrane-Bound Organelles:
      • Nucleus (contains genetic information)
      • Mitochondria (site of cellular respiration)
      • Chloroplasts (a group of organelles in plant cells)
    • Single Membrane-Bound Organelles:
      • Golgi apparatus (modifies proteins, secretes substances)
      • Lysosomes (contain digestive enzymes)
      • Peroxisomes (vesicles for breaking down compounds)
      • Endoplasmic reticulum (network of channels & cisternae)
      • Vacuoles (sequester waste products)

    Cellular Components: Non-Membrane Bound Organelles

    • Cell wall (outer covering of some non-animal cells)
    • Cytoskeleton (provides cell structure)
    • Ribosomes (location of protein synthesis)
    • Centrosome/microtubule organizing center (contain centrioles)
    • Centriole (cylindrical organelle required in spindle fiber creation)

    Nucleus

    • Abundance: Monokaryocytes, bikaryocytes, polykaryocytes (not erythrocytes or stratum corneum).
    • Size/shape: Varies based on cell type, age, and function (spherical, ellipsoidal, or fragmented).
    • Volume: ~10% of mammalian cell volume.
    • Position: Typically in the center but can vary slightly.

    Nucleus: States

    • Interphase (between cell divisions, preparing for division).
    • Mitotic (during cell division).
    • Metabolic (resting state, Go phase, directs metabolic & maintenance processes).

    Nucleus structure during Interphase

    • Nuclear envelope (membrane).
    • Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm).
    • Nucleolus
    • Chromatin (Condensed/ heterochromatin, Dispersed/euchromatin.)

    Nucleolus

    • Usually one nucleolus, no membrane.
    • Contains fragments of 5 chromosomes (NORs).
    • Site of rRNA synthesis and ribosome formation.

    Nucleus: Functions

    • DNA synthesis (replication before cell division).
    • RNA synthesis (transcription).
    • Ribosome formation (structure responsible for protein synthesis.

    The Endoplasmic Reticulum

    • System of single-layer membranes forming cisternae, channels, and vesicles.
    • Functions:
      • Increases internal surface area of the cell.
      • Divides cytoplasm into compartments.
      • Regulates transport of organelles, substrates, and products.

    The Endoplasmic Reticulum (types)

    • Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes, involved in lipid & steroid synthesis and removal of toxins.
    • Rough ER: Contains ribosomes for protein synthesis, modification, and quality control. Connects to outer nuclear membrane and other cell membranes.

    Ribosomes

    • Made of rRNA and proteins.
    • Two main types in eukaryotes:
    • Free Ribosomes: produce proteins functioning in the cytosol.
    • Bound Ribosomes: (attached to rough ER) produce proteins for export or modification.
    • Ribosomes in mitochondria and chloroplasts are smaller, like prokaryotic ribosomes.

    Ribosomes (cont.)

    • Two subunits (small and large).
    • Prokaryotic ribosomes (70s)
    • Eukaryotic ribosomes (80s).

    Mitochondria

    • Number varies based on organism, cell type, and energy demands.
    • Size varies (2-8 µm).
    • Shape can change quickly (filamentous, granular, branched).
    • New mitochondria form via division of existing ones.
    • Number of Mitochondria in Various Cells:
      • Epidermal cells: 2 - 6
      • Sperm cells: 20 - 50
      • Liver cells: 1,000 - 2,500
      • Skeletal muscle cells: up to 1,600
      • Skin cells: ~2,000
      • Nerve cells: 10,000
      • Ova: >100,000
    • (Existing information is maintained below.)*

    Mitochondrial Structure

    • Two-layered membrane (outer membrane is smooth and allows many substances to pass through via passive transport, inner membrane allows selected compounds through).
    • Intermembrane space between the two membranes.
    • Inner membrane has folds called cristae.

    Mitochondrial Structure (cont.)

    • Mitochondria contain:
      • mtDNA (double-stranded circular mitochondrial DNA)
      • Ribosomes (70s)
      • Enzymes for ATP production.
      • Nucleoids (mtDNA packing complexes)

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