Biology Chapter 3: Organic Compounds
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Questions and Answers

What distinguishes α-Glucose from β-Glucose?

  • The type of glycosidic linkage
  • Their molecular weight
  • The position of the hydroxyl group (correct)
  • The number of carbon atoms

Which structure is formed when two monosaccharides join together?

  • Polysaccharide
  • Disaccharide (correct)
  • Oligosaccharide
  • Dimer

Which of the following is a common disaccharide made up of glucose and fructose?

  • Maltose
  • Raffinose
  • Lactose
  • Sucrose (correct)

What type of linkage connects the monosaccharide units in a disaccharide?

<p>Glycosidic linkage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which polysaccharide is most commonly associated with energy storage in animals?

<p>Glycogen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two forms of starch found in plants?

<p>Amylose and Amylopectin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes cellulose?

<p>A structural polysaccharide in plants (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary structural feature of disaccharides?

<p>A covalent bond between two sugar units and an oxygen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes lipids?

<p>Compounds composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a biologically important group of lipids?

<p>Carbohydrates (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which organelle is specifically involved in storing starch in buttercup root cells?

<p>Amyloplasts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of linkage forms triacylglycerols?

<p>Ester linkage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the structure of glycogen differ from that of plant starch?

<p>Glycogen is more extensively branched and more water soluble. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characterizes fatty acids?

<p>They include a long hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of linkages do humans have enzymes to break down?

<p>α 1—4 glycosidic linkages (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of triacylglycerols in living organisms?

<p>Energy storage (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During digestion, triacylglycerols are hydrolyzed into which products?

<p>Fatty acids and glycerol (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of cellulose in plants?

<p>Structural component of plant fibers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about chitin is correct?

<p>Chitin forms the exoskeletons of arthropods. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many hydroxyl groups does glycerol contain?

<p>Three (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct order of formation for triglycerides from glycerol and fatty acids?

<p>Monoglyceride, Diglyceride, Triglyceride (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of molecule is a glycoprotein?

<p>A combination of carbohydrate and protein (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of carbohydrate is considered the most abundant?

<p>Cellulose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the structural composition of a phospholipid head?

<p>A phosphate group, glycerol, and an organic group (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the linkages in cellulose that humans cannot break down?

<p>β 1—4 glycosidic linkages (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic makes phospholipids amphipathic?

<p>They contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to phospholipids when they interact with water?

<p>They form a lipid bilayer. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes carotenoids?

<p>5-carbon hydrocarbon monomers that function in photosynthesis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following substances is produced from carotenoids in animals?

<p>Retinal (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of steroids?

<p>They contain four attached carbon rings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which steroid is essential for maintaining cell membrane integrity?

<p>Cholesterol (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cortisol in the body?

<p>To function as a stress hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason that carbon-containing compounds can form a wide variety of molecular shapes?

<p>Freedom of rotation around carbon-to-carbon single bonds. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of isomer has different covalent arrangements of atoms?

<p>Structural isomers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do enantiomers differ from each other?

<p>They are mirror images of one another. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about isomers is true?

<p>Isomers may have different common names and properties. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do functional groups have on organic molecules?

<p>They change the properties of organic molecules. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of isomer is characterized by spatial arrangement due to double bonds?

<p>Geometric isomers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of structural isomers?

<p>They have the same molecular formula but differ in molecular shape. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it significant that one isomer is often biologically active while another is not?

<p>It allows cells to differentiate between reactive and non-reactive forms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?

<p>Saturated fatty acids have maximum hydrogen atoms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is typically a physical state of unsaturated fatty acids at room temperature?

<p>Liquid (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which fatty acid is an example of a monounsaturated fatty acid?

<p>Oleic acid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does hydrogenation have on unsaturated fatty acids?

<p>It converts them to saturated fatty acids. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major health concern associated with trans fats?

<p>They increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature prevents unsaturated fatty acids from aligning closely with one another?

<p>The double bond creates a bend in the chain. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding saturated fatty acids is true?

<p>They are found in animal fats and solid vegetable shortening. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of fatty acids contain two or more adjacent double bonds?

<p>Polyunsaturated fatty acids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Glucose's Structure in Solution

Glucose in solution exists as a ring structure with five carbons and one oxygen.

Alpha vs. Beta Glucose

The position of the hydroxyl group attached to the carbon next to the CH2OH group determines whether glucose is alpha or beta.

Disaccharide

Two monosaccharides linked together by a glycosidic linkage, formed by a central oxygen bonded to two carbons.

Maltose

A type of disaccharide consisting of two α-glucose units linked together.

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Sucrose

A type of disaccharide made up of one glucose unit and one fructose unit.

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Lactose

A type of disaccharide composed of one glucose unit and one galactose unit.

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Polysaccharide

Large molecules made up of repeating units of simple sugars, primarily glucose.

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Starch

A type of polysaccharide that serves as energy storage in plants.

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Shape and Function of Organic Molecules

The shape of a molecule plays a key role in its biological activity and function.

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Carbon's Role in Organic Molecules

Carbon atoms form the backbone of organic molecules, connecting to each other and other atoms to create various 3-dimensional structures.

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Freedom of Rotation around Single Bonds

The single bond between adjacent carbon atoms allows for free rotation, leading to diverse molecular shapes.

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Double and Triple Bonds Restrict Rotation

The presence of double or triple bonds between carbon atoms prevents rotation, limiting the range of possible shapes.

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What are Isomers?

Isomers are compounds that share the same chemical formula but possess distinct structural arrangements.

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Structural Isomers

Structural isomers differ in the arrangement of their atoms, leading to distinct properties.

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Geometric Isomers

Geometric isomers have the same atoms connected in the same order but differ in their spatial arrangement due to restricted rotation around double bonds.

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Enantiomers

Enantiomers are mirror images of each other, with the presence of a carbon atom bonded to four different groups.

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Glycogen

A type of polysaccharide made of glucose subunits linked by α 1-4 glycosidic bonds. It is the main energy storage form in animal tissues.

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Cellulose

A polysaccharide made of glucose subunits linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds. It is the most abundant carbohydrate and provides structural support in plants.

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Amyloplasts

Specialized organelles in plant cells where starch is stored.

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Amino Sugar

A type of carbohydrate that is a modified sugar with an amino group replacing a hydroxyl group.

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Chitin

A structural polysaccharide composed of N-acetyl glucosamine (NAG) subunits. It is a major component of insect exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.

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Glycoprotein

A molecule composed of a carbohydrate attached to a protein. They often have roles in cell protection and adherence.

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Glycolipid

A molecule composed of a carbohydrate attached to a lipid. They are often found on animal cell surfaces and serve as recognition markers.

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α 1-4 Glycosidic Linkage Enzymes

Enzymes that break down α 1-4 glycosidic linkages.

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What are lipids?

Compounds that dissolve in fats and oils, but not in water, also known as fats.

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What are triacylglycerols?

A type of lipid that is the most abundant form of fat in living organisms.

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What is glycerol?

A three-carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups (-OH), forming the backbone structure of triacylglycerols.

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What is a fatty acid?

A long chain of carbon and hydrogen with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end.

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What is an ester linkage?

A bond formed between a carboxyl group and a hydroxyl group, creating a connection between fatty acids and glycerol.

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What is a triacylglycerol?

A type of lipid formed through ester linkages between glycerol and three fatty acids.

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What is a monoacylglycerol?

A combination of one glycerol and one fatty acid.

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What is the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols?

The process of breaking down triacylglycerols into glycerol and fatty acids.

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Saturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids containing the maximum number of hydrogen atoms. They are typically found in animal fats and solid vegetable shortening.

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Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, resulting in fewer hydrogen atoms. They are typically liquid at room temperature.

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Monounsaturated Fatty Acid

A type of unsaturated fatty acid with one double bond in its structure.

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Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid

A type of unsaturated fatty acid with multiple double bonds in its structure.

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Hydrogenation

The process of adding hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fatty acids to make them more solid at room temperature, often found in margarine.

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Trans Fats

A type of fat produced during hydrogenation that has a different configuration of hydrogen atoms compared to naturally occurring unsaturated fats, often found in processed foods. These have similar properties to saturated fats, increasing cardiovascular disease risk.

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Van der Waals Interactions

The tendency of molecules to attract each other due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution. This force is stronger in saturated fatty acids, leading to their solid state at room temperature.

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Cis Fatty Acids

A type of unsaturated fatty acid that has a 'kink' in its structure due to the double bond, causing them to be less densely packed and more fluid at room temperature.

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What is a phospholipid?

A type of lipid with a hydrophilic head (attracted to water) and a hydrophobic tail (repels water).

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How does a phospholipid bilayer form?

A phospholipid bilayer forms when phospholipids organize in water, with their hydrophilic heads facing outward and their hydrophobic tails facing inward.

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What is an isoprene unit?

A 5-carbon unit that serves as a building block for many important molecules, including carotenoids.

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What are carotenoids?

Orange and yellow pigments found in plants, classified as oils due to their insolubility in water. They play a role in photosynthesis and are converted to vitamin A in animals.

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What is a steroid?

A type of lipid with four fused carbon rings, playing essential roles in cell structure, hormone synthesis, and other biological processes.

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What is the role of cholesterol?

A key steroid found in animal cell membranes, crucial for cell membrane structure and function.

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What is cortisol?

A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal gland, playing essential roles in regulating metabolism, stress response, and other vital functions.

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How do plant steroids affect cholesterol absorption?

Plant cell membranes contain molecules similar to cholesterol, some of which can interfere with the absorption of cholesterol in the intestines.

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Study Notes

Chapter 3: The Chemistry of Life: Organic Compounds

  • Organic compounds are molecules where carbon atoms are covalently bonded to form the molecule's structure.
  • Organic compounds are extremely varied.
  • More than five million organic compounds have been identified, including modular subunits like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
  • Carbon atoms form bonds with more elements than any other atom type.

3.1 Carbon Atoms and Organic Molecules

  • Carbon atoms complete their valence shell by forming four covalent bonds.
  • Carbon-carbon bonds are strong but not so strong that cells cannot break them.
  • Carbon-carbon bonds can have single, double, or triple bonds.
  • Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
  • Hydrocarbons can exist as unbranched or branched chains, or rings.

3.1 Carbon Atoms and Organic Molecules (continued)

  • The shape of a molecule determines its biological function and properties.
  • Carbon atoms link to produce various 3-D shapes and not just a single plane.
  • Single carbon bonds allow rotational freedom, leading to a variety of molecular shapes.
  • Double and triple bonds do not allow rotation.

Isomers

  • Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and, therefore, different properties.
  • They may have different common names.
  • One isomer may be biologically active while another is not.
  • Cells can distinguish between isomers because they have different properties.
  • There are three main isomers: structural isomers, geometric isomers, and enantiomers.

3.2 Carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; the ratio is roughly 1:2:1.
  • Carbohydrates include sugars and starches.
  • Monosaccharides are simple sugars containing 3-7 carbon atoms.
  • In a monosaccharide, a hydroxyl group is bonded to each carbon except one, which forms a carbonyl group.
  • Examples include trioses, pentoses, and hexoses (like glucose, fructose, and galactose).
  • Glucose is a crucial monosaccharide for energy and synthesis.
  • Glucose can exist as α- or β- glucose, depending on the structure.
  • Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage.
  • Common examples are maltose, sucrose, and lactose.

Monosaccharides

  • Monosaccharides have 3-7 carbon atoms.
  • In monosaccharides, a hydroxyl group is attached to each carbon except one, and that carbon has a carbonyl group.
  • Aldehyde: carbonyl group at the end of the chain.
  • Ketone: carbonyl group at any other position.
  • Examples: Triose-glyceraldehyde; Dihydroxyacetone, Pentose- ribose, deoxyribose; Hexose-glucose, fructose, galactose

Polysaccharides

  • Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of repeating units of simple sugars, often glucose.
  • Examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
  • Starch is a plant energy storage polysaccharide.
  • Glycogen is an animal energy storage polysaccharide.
  • Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide found in plants.
  • Modified complex carbohydrates like amino sugars play special roles in the body (e.g., cartilage and exoskeletons).

3.3 Lipids

  • Lipids are compounds soluble in non-polar solvents and relatively insoluble in water.
  • Lipids consist mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms with few oxygen-containing functional groups.
  • Lipids are hydrophobic (water-repelling).
  • Important lipids include fats, phospholipids, carotenoids, steroids, and waxes.
  • Lipids serve as energy storage, structural constituents of cell membranes, and are involved in key hormones.

Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides)

  • Triacylglycerols (triglycerides or fats) are made from glycerol and three fatty acids.
  • They are the most abundant lipids in living organisms.
  • Triacylglycerols are an economical way to store energy.
  • Triglycerides consist of glycerol joined to three fatty acids.
  • Ester linkages connect glycerol and fatty acids.

Fatty Acids

  • Fatty acids are long, unbranched hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end.
  • Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
  • Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
  • The presence of double bonds causes a bend in the hydrocarbon chain, influencing the physical properties of fatty acids.
  • Saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature due to efficient van der Waals interactions.
  • Unsaturated Fats are typically liquid at room temperature, due to space created by bends in their structure.

Hydrogenated Oils and Trans Fats

  • Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated cooking oils convert unsaturated fats to saturated fats to solidify them.
  • This process creates trans fats, which mimic saturated fats but do not have the same benefits/risks.

Phospholipids

  • Phospholipids are amphipathic lipids.
  • They have a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail.
  • Phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule, a phosphate group, and an organic group (e.g., choline) in the head region; the tail region consists of two fatty acids.
  • Phospholipids are crucial components of cell membranes, forming a phospholipid bilayer.

Carotenoids

  • Carotenoids are orange and yellow pigments in plants.
  • They are classified as oils.
  • They function in photosynthesis.
  • They consist of 5-carbon hydrocarbon monomers (isoprene units).
  • Animals convert carotenoids to vitamin A; one form of vitamin A is retinal, which functions in light reception in eyes.

Steroids

  • Steroids are lipids with four rings of carbon atoms.
  • Side chains differentiate one steroid from another.
  • Examples include cholesterol, bile salts, reproductive hormones, cortisol, and other hormones.
  • Plant cell membranes contain molecules similar to cholesterol.

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